Traditional firefighting clothing plays a crucial role in protecting firefighters from burn injuries through its passive heat insulation performance. However, current firefighting garments still face a challenge in dealing with complex and changeable rescue scenarios due to their insufficient risk warning capability for firefighter safety. Herein, we propose a wearable bimodal fiber sensor with a core-sheath structure, which incorporates an engineered mesoporous Ti3C2Tx and a Ti3C2Tx/SnSe heterojunction integrated into an aramid nanofiber substrate for monitoring exposed ammonia gas and temperature in firefighting clothing. The outer shell of sensing fiber is composed of mesoporous Ti3C2Tx, featuring active edge-Ti-O sites, while the MXene and SnSe in the core layer of the sensing fiber create nanoscale Schottky junctions that facilitate an energy filtering effect. The resulting chemical resistance-type gas sensing fiber sheath provides an ultrafast response time (9 s) and high sensitivity (41.76% @ 8 ppm) in detecting NH3. Additionally, due to the energy filtering effect of the nanoscale Schottky junction between Ti3C2Tx and SnSe, the sensing fiber core exhibits high thermoelectric sensitivity (S = 560 μV K-1 from 130 to 320 °C), super-resolution (1 °C), and a wide temperature monitoring range (-20 to 320 °C). To facilitate wearable applications, the sensing signals from the monitoring system are transmitted wirelessly via Bluetooth and displayed on a smartphone, enabling multidirectional dynamic warnings for NH3 and overheating alerts in firefighting clothing. This work significantly advances the implementation of wearable gas and temperature warning sensors in firefighting clothing for enhancing firefighter safety.
The transition from aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) to fluorine-free foams (F3) requires effective decontamination of aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) vehicles to prevent further PFAS releases. Comprehensive, publicly accessible field assessments of PFAS decontamination protocols for ARFF vehicles are sparse. Herein, PFAS decontamination methods were evaluated on AFFF-impacted ARFF vehicles. PFAS removal was assessed using target PFAS analysis and adsorbable organic fluorine (AOF). While initial samples collected and analyzed using target PFAS analysis demonstrated high removal in the initial rinses (up to 84% of the readily removable PFAS fraction in three rinses), subsequent efforts yielded diminishing returns. Notably, the introduction of cleaning solvents failed to meaningfully enhance decontamination efficiency. Post-cleanout assessments revealed significant PFAS rebound after two months, representing ∼40% of the total readily removable PFAS fraction removed during ARFF vehicle decontamination. Samples collected and analyzed for AOF revealed large quantities of fluorinated compounds not captured by target PFAS analytical methods with between 25 and 160 times greater AOF concentrations emanating from the two ARFF vehicles examined. The higher AOF values compared to target PFAS suggests the importance of non-target PFAS analytical techniques for more comprehensive performance evaluation. The findings of this field study demonstrate that the decontamination methods examined were insufficient to achieve complete PFAS removal from the interior surfaces of ARFF vehicles as evident by the significant PFAS rebound observed post-decontamination. Additional work is needed as inadequate ARFF vehicle decontamination may result in the accidental discharge of PFAS into the environment.
Firefighters face arduous tasks and extreme physical demands as part of their regular work. This paper analyzes biomechanical data from four firefighting activities to identify critical areas requiring support and evaluates the effectiveness of integrating spring-based passive assistance and active assistance during these selected activities. Crucial areas demanding support were identified by analyzing joint torque profiles, joint reaction forces, and muscle group activation levels during the chosen firefighting activities. The impact of incorporating spring-based passive assistance and active assistance was examined through muscle activation data generated from full-body subject-specific musculoskeletal simulations and motion capture. The simulation results were rigorously assessed for potential lower-body exoskeleton solutions through statistical analysis employing the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Passive hip assistance proved effective for rescue operations (body drag) based on the results where hip flexor muscles demonstrated a large decrease in muscle activity (P<0.05 and d>0.8). The active hip assistance demonstrated efficacy across all four firefighting activities, showcasing a decrease in average hip muscle activation levels (P<0.05 and d>0 for all activities). Additionally, employing simultaneous active assistance at the hip, knee, and ankle joints resulted in a substantial reduction in the overall leg muscle profile, with a significant impact during stair climb (P<0.05 and d>0.8) and a moderate effect during equipment carry, hose drag, and rescue (body drag).
Female firefighters face unique occupational exposures that may elevate reproductive health risks. Physical exertion during firefighting has been linked to increased stress hormones and elevated blood pressure, while prior studies associate firefighting with adverse pregnancy outcomes, including preterm births and miscarriages. Mental and emotional demands further compound these risks, yet reproductive health concerns among female firefighters remain underexplored in Canada. This qualitative study employed an interpretive descriptive approach to examine reproductive health concerns and outcomes among Canadian female firefighters. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and were analyzed thematically to identify key experiences and challenges. Participants reported uncertainty regarding the impact of hazardous exposures on reproductive health and highlighted policy gaps addressing female-specific needs. They described challenges with delayed motherhood, navigating the invisibility of menopause and perimenopausal symptoms, and limited access to resources or information on reproductive risks. Physical exertion and occupational stress were perceived as contributing to adverse reproductive outcomes, while mental and emotional stressors heightened vulnerability. Findings underscore the urgent need for targeted policies, resources, and interventions to address reproductive health risks among female firefighters. Supporting this occupational group is essential to improving well-being and promoting healthier reproductive outcomes within the fire service.
The rising frequency of large-scale, destructive wildfires has significantly affected not only natural ecosystems but also critical infrastructure, human lives, and properties. Given the devastating and often irreversible environmental and financial consequences, researchers from diverse fields are actively seeking solutions to improve resilience against wildfires. Fire suppression, one of the most effective strategies to mitigate wildfire damage, relies heavily on rapid and high-fidelity forecasting of fire spread. These predictions are essential for planning evacuations by state or local emergency management agencies, implementing preemptive de-energization strategies for electric utilities, and coordinating fire containment efforts by firefighting teams. However, a significant bottleneck across all these planning processes is the significant computational burden imposed by high-resolution wildfire modeling, the demand for improved predictive accuracy, and the need to integrate diverse and large-scale datasets. Since response time is crucial for wildfire risk management, this paper proposes a deep learning-based surrogate model to predict fire spread in just a fraction of a second. We developed and trained a convolutional neural network (CNN) model that efficiently predicts wildfire propagation. The proposed model demonstrates high efficiency, achieving an F1 score of 0.92. The contributions of this paper are twofold: (1) a fast, high-resolution CNN model that can support wildfire-related public safety power shutoff (PSPS) planning for electric utilities, and (2) a practical tool for firefighting and evacuation teams to support rapid and data-informed risk assessment.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are extensively reported in consumer products, industrial and municipal discharges, environmental matrices, and human tissues, and are increasingly associated with persistence and adverse health effects in wildlife and people. Despite thousands of accidental oil spills reported annually in the United States, PFAS emissions from petrochemical discharges and firefighting activities remain poorly characterized, limiting accurate assessment of environmental contamination and public-health risk. In August 2025, an explosion at Smitty's Supply in Roseland, Louisiana released 11.3 million gallons of residual oil, lubricants, and automotive fluids and thousands of gallons of firefighting foam, despite intensive recovery and cleanup efforts. Surface-water samples were collected along the Tangipahoa River (n = 56, 7 events over 8 spatial points), lower Tangipahoa River (n = 9, 2 events over 4-5 spatial points and in receiving estuary Lake Pontchartrain (n = 11, 2 events over 5-6 spatial points) over four months following the explosion and analyzed for 29 conventional and replacement PFAS using solid phase extraction and a state-of-the-art, validated HPLC-MS/MS method. Short-chain PFAS predominated, with PFPeA, PFHxA, and PFHpA detected in almost all river water samples at concentrations ranging from 0.16 to 398 ng/L. PFHxA accounted for the largest share (36-73%) of total quantified PFAS, followed by PFPeA (15-44%), PFBA, and PFHpA (4.7-16%). Flow-normalized mass discharges into the Tangipahoa River were estimated up to 111 g/day of PFPeA and 807 g/day of PFHxA. Second-order attenuation half-lives ranged from 7.48 to 15.3 days for PFPeA and 4.48-14.3 days for PFHxA. This study provides the first assessment of PFAS contamination associated with petroleum product releases into freshwater waterways, addressing a critical knowledge gap in Louisiana, a major hub for crude oil storage and distribution. Given the cultural importance of recreation and subsistence fishing in Louisiana, the observed PFAS profile has critical implications for long-term health impact assessments and for developing risk-management strategies for similar future incidents.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have long been valued for their chemical stability, hydrophobicity, oleophobicity, and thermal resistance, supporting applications in firefighting foams, textiles, food packaging, medical devices, electronics, and industrial surfactants. However, growing evidence of environmental persistence and health risks has prompted regulatory restrictions and a shift toward PFAS-free alternatives. This review assesses PFAS-free substitutes across key sectors, examining their chemical and functional mechanisms, performance trade-offs, safety profiles, and market readiness. Fluorine-free foams, silicone and hydrocarbon-based textile coatings, biobased and synthetic polymer food packaging, alkyl polyglucosides and silicone surfactants, plant-derived cosmetic emollients, hydrophilic and zwitterionic polymers for medical devices, and PFAS-free photoresists are examined for their efficacy and sustainability potential. To situate these developments within a broader socio-environmental context, a Driving forces-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses (DPSIR)-based framework is applied to assess sectoral substitution urgency. A comparative ranking indicates very high urgency for firefighting foams and food packaging, high urgency for textiles and industrial surfactants, moderate-high urgency for cosmetics and personal care products, moderate urgency for electronics and semiconductors, and moderate/targeted urgency for medical devices. Sensitivity analysis under alternative weighting scenarios confirms complete stability of sectoral rankings, demonstrating robustness of the prioritisation framework. Regional adoption patterns, regulatory drivers, and implementation barriers, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, are discussed, emphasising the need for harmonised standards, knowledge-sharing, and innovation support. Overall, while PFAS-free alternatives exhibit application-dependent functional viability, trade-offs in durability, chemical resistance, and operational efficiency remain, underscoring opportunities for continued materials innovation toward reducing reliance on PFAS.
Accurate stress monitoring is critical for high-risk professions like firefighting, yet existing wearable solutions face challenges balancing accuracy with practical usability. While electrodermal activity (EDA) offers a non-invasive, single-sensor approach, current automated feature extraction methods fail to capture stress-discriminative patterns effectively. We developed a hybrid stress detection pipeline combining 20 hand-crafted physiological features with 32 deep-learned features from a supervised convolutional autoencoder. Unlike traditional unsupervised approaches optimized solely for signal reconstruction, our architecture employs a dual-head design with weighted classification loss to guide feature learning toward stress discrimination. The system was validated on the WESAD dataset (15 subjects) using rigorous leave-one-subject-out (LOSO) cross-validation, along with comprehensive preprocessing, including cvxEDA decomposition, adaptive artifact detection, and physiological peak validation. Our optimized K-Nearest Neighbors classifier achieved 98.62% accuracy, surpassing the industry-standard PyEDA benchmark (97.0%) by 1.62 percentage points. The model demonstrated 97.58% sensitivity (true positive rate) and 98.92% specificity (true negative rate), with only 2.42% false negatives-critical for safety-critical applications. Ablation studies revealed that unsupervised autoencoder features alone achieved only 55% accuracy, increasing to 89% with supervised learning and 98.62% with the hybrid approach, representing a 43.62-percentage-point improvement. This work demonstrates that combining domain-specific physiological knowledge with label-aware deep learning produces more discriminative features than either approach alone. The resulting system successfully translates complex probabilistic outputs into an interpretable 1-10 stress score, providing a practical foundation for real-time stress monitoring in wearable devices for first responders.
PFAS contamination of terrestrial environments poses ecological risks, yet the biological responses of soil invertebrates to environmentally realistic PFAS mixtures remain poorly characterised. Here we assessed field-collected PFAS-contaminated soils from a firefighting training site in Trelleborg (Sweden) on Eisenia fetida, using a multi-endpoint approach spanning molecular, enzymatic, behavioural and reproductive responses. The soils spanned nearly three orders of magnitude in total PFAS (1.2-955 μg/kg dw), providing field-relevant exposure without laboratory manipulation. Catalase activity was significantly reduced at three of the five contaminated sites (B4, p < 0.001; B5, p < 0.0001; B6, p < 0.05) and phenol oxidase at a further four (B1, B4 and B5, p < 0.01; B6, p < 0.05), indicating disruption of antioxidant and innate-immune pathways, with non-linear changes in the immune transcripts CCF-1 and Lysenin. Escape latency was markedly prolonged at B1 and B4 (median 141 s and 170 s versus 83 s in controls), while acetylcholinesterase activity showed only a marginal, non-monotonic trend (p < 0.1), and biomass loss and reproductive output below the OECD Test 222 validity threshold occurred at every site except the least contaminated (B7). An integrated, non-parametric multivariate analysis unified these endpoints: all contaminated sites except B7 separated from the control, and phenol oxidase activity declined with the internal PFAS burden (ρ = -0.63) rather than with the soil trace-metal load, indicating that the responses tracked internal PFAS rather than co-occurring contaminants. To our knowledge this is the first study to use AFFF-contaminated field soils as the exposure matrix within an OECD Test 222 framework alongside a multi-tier sublethal endpoint battery in E. fetida, previously characterised mainly with spiked or agricultural soils. The results show that AFFF-derived PFAS mixtures impair earthworm function across multiple levels of biological organisation and support including chronic, integrative endpoints in soil ecological risk assessment for PFAS.
Shadowbox simulation is an educational approach that utilises the ShadowBox method, originally developed in high-stakes fields such as firefighting and the military, adapted for healthcare education. Grounded in cognitive transformation theory and drawing heavily on naturalistic decision-making, shadowbox simulation makes expert reasoning visible and accessible, enabling learners to compare their decision-making with that of experts and develop complex cognitive and behavioural skills. Early applications of shadowbox simulation in healthcare have demonstrated feasibility across diverse contexts. Building on these foundations, we describe the implementation of a hybrid shadowbox simulation format within Scotland's national Internal Medicine Training program. This model combines video vignettes of expert practice, structured decision-points, group discussion and procedural practice, all supported by expert facilitation. Evaluation across more than 40 sessions shows that learners value the safe learning environment, the opportunity to embrace uncertainty and explore multiple perspectives, and the balance of reflective discussion with procedural refreshers. Feedback indicates that the format may foster deeper engagement, greater knowledge retention, and broader participation compared with traditional immersive simulation, while requiring fewer resources. By synthesising evidence from outside healthcare, reviewing recent adaptations, and presenting the principles and outcomes of national implementation, this article positions shadowbox simulation as a theory-informed, resource-efficient, and scalable method that advances simulation practice. We argue that shadowbox simulation offers particular promise for developing non-technical or behavioural skills, supporting reflective learning, and widening access to simulation-based education. Future potential applications extending to leadership, delegation, and induction training across healthcare professions are discussed.
This study examined PFAS persistence on plumbing components obtained from a retired aircraft hangar. The effect of rinse volume and pipe corrosion was investigated to address technical gaps and inform practical solutions for PFAS-impacted fire suppression systems. The components, rinsed with deionized water, included straight pipe sections as well as elbows and proportioners. Solid-phase extraction with HPLC/MS/MS was employed to analyze PFAS in the rinse waters. Straight pipe sections followed trends for PFAS persistence reported in the literature for such sections, and the results for elbows and proportioners, not previously reported, suggested meaningful differences compared to straight sections. Results indicate that a single rinsing cycle consisting of three volumes of deionized water is capable of partially removing PFAS and that the amount of PFAS removed by successive rinses decreases with each rinse. Pre- and post-rinse pipe specimens were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Corrosion of the components impacts desorption, potentially due to a weakly bound layer on the surface and a strongly bound layer interacting with metal oxides. These results inform future research and decontamination protocols needed for remediating firefighting infrastructure contaminated with PFAS.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless byproduct of incomplete combustion that binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), impairing oxygen delivery and causing systemic hypoxia. Two widely used models for estimating CO toxicity are the Coburn-Forster-Kane (CFK) equation, which incorporates physiological and anthropometric parameters, and the workload-based MIL-STD-1472 model, developed in the late 1960s and 1970s. Both have been applied extensively in military armored motor vehicle (AMV) operations, firefighting, and mining. This study evaluates the predictive performance of these models during field trials involving AMV crews conducting live-fire exercises. Ambient CO concentrations were continuously monitored, and serial blood samples were obtained for COHb determination. Individual physiological and anthropometric data were used to generate CFK-based predictions, while the MIL-STD-1472 estimates were derived using the activity level equivalent (ALE) values, which were developed to allow for mathematical alignment between the two models. Measured COHb levels showed strong agreement with predictions from both the CFK and MIL-STD-1472 equations. An ALE analysis indicated that the actual physical workload during AMV operations was substantially lower than the activity level (AL = 4) originally recommended in MIL-STD-1472. In addition, algebraic rearrangement of the MIL-STD-1472 equation enabled the estimation of COHb recovery time following cessation of exposure. This study provides a field-based evaluation of two established models for predicting carboxyhemoglobin formation. Measurements obtained during live armored motor vehicle operations demonstrate that both the CFK and MIL-STD-1472 equations accurately estimate COHb under conditions of near-ambient oxygen tension and minimal CO2 accumulation. Importantly, MIL-STD-1472 predictions using moderate ALE values were more consistent with the observed COHb values, suggesting that the commonly applied activity level (AL = 4) may overestimate CO exposure risk in comparable operational environments.
Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are contained in various consumer products that include nonstick coatings, packaging materials, cosmetics, and firefighting foams due to their combined hydrophobic and oleophobic properties and chemical and thermal stability. These properties also result in human toxicity and have led to their accumulation in the environment. Several methods are being used to remove PFAS contaminants from the environment, and one common technique involves removal through ion exchange. Polymerization-induced microphase separation (PIMS) enables the synthesis of PFAS-capturing anion exchange beads featuring co-continuous morphology, tunable domain spacing, and high surface accessibility within a mechanically robust crosslinked network. Beads were synthesized using a poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride)-based macro chain transfer agent, styrene, and divinylbenzene. Anion exchange beads were obtained by etching the poly(ε-caprolactone) component and quaternizing the poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride), and their ion exchange capacity was measured to be 1.00 ± 0.05 mmol g-1. The rates of PFAS removal were evaluated using pseudo-second-order kinetic analysis for both short-chain (trifluoroacetic acid [TFA] and perfluorobutanoic acid [PFBA]) and long-chain (perfluorooctanoic acid [PFOA]) PFAS. The initial sorption rates of TFA and PFBA were 2.9 and 2.3 times higher, respectively, in quaternized beads (PB-Q) compared to Amberlite IRA 900 whole resin. In contrast, PFOA exhibited a 1.7 times higher initial sorption rate to IRA 900 whole resin than to PB-Q. Langmuir isotherm analysis indicated significantly stronger affinities of all PFAS for PB-Q than IRA 900, even though the IRA 900 had greater capacity, suggesting that PB-Q is more effective for removing PFAS at low concentrations. Treating the PFAS loaded PB-Q beads with a 1 : 1 v/v mixture of methanol and 1 M NaCl(aq) resulted in 100% PFAS desorption.
Acute exposure to psychological stress activates the sympathetic "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, respiratory rate, and metabolic activity. High-stress occupations such as law enforcement, firefighting, and military service regularly involve exposure to intense stress and may benefit from interventions that mitigate physiological and psychological stress responses. Slow-breathing techniques such as box breathing and prolonged exhalation have been shown to reduce perceived stress and certain physiological markers; however, their relative effectiveness under acute stress conditions remains unclear. In this randomized controlled trial, sixty-six participants (n = 66) were randomly assigned to normal breathing (NB; n = 22), prolonged exhalation (PE; n = 22), or box breathing (BOX; n = 22) prior to completing a modified, virtual Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Markers of subjective and physiological stress were collected before and after the TSST, including state anxiety (SAI), heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV; RMSSD, SDNN), and salivary concentrations of alpha-amylase (sAA), secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), and cortisol, as well as cognitive performance (Stroop color-word task and mental arithmetic). Utilizing a linear mixed model with a random subject intercept, the TSST elicited significant increases in HR, SAI, sAA, and SIgA. Both PE and BOX breathing attenuated post-stressor increases in HR, SAI, and sAA compared to NB, indicating that brief breathing practice can buffer acute physiological stress responses. HRV, Cortisol, and cognitive performance were statistically unchanged across the three conditions. These findings support the short-term effectiveness of both box breathing and prolonged exhalation for reducing subjective and peripheral physiological markers of stress.
Firefighting is a highly demanding profession, involving frequent exposure to stress and life-threatening situations. This pilot study investigates firefighters' cognitive and emotional responses underlying problem-solving and emotion regulation during stressful operations. It explores how and to what extent firefighters experience their thoughts and emotions, focusing on subjective experiences of valence and physiological arousal, and whether they perceive their thoughts and emotions as helpful or hindrances. Additionally, we examine habitual emotion regulation strategies, accounting for age and work experience. Seventy-eight firefighters participated in structured interviews based on Cognitive Behavioural Therapy techniques and completed the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ). Fire accidents were reported as the most stressful operations (35%), with cognitive appraisal oriented to stress-threat (31%). Participants experienced mixed emotions (27%) rather than a single dominant emotion and consistently prioritised rescuing individuals as a problem-solving tendency (49%). Despite high subjective experience of bodily changes and physiological arousal, thoughts and emotions were generally perceived as positive and helpful. Cognitive reappraisal was the most frequently used emotion regulation strategy both during stressful operations (23%) and as a habitual tendency, while suppression was less common and negatively correlated with age. Age explained approximately 8% of the variance in suppression. By using a Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) framework, this pilot study demonstrates new insight into firefighters' underlying cognitive and emotional processes during critical operations. Significant strengths and limitations, as well as suggestions for further research are discussed.
BackgroundFirefighting is a physically demanding and hazardous profession. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) and declining work ability threaten workforce sustainability and public safety. Despite its critical importance, comprehensive occupational health data on this population remains limited in certain regions.ObjectiveThis study evaluated the Work Ability Index (WAI) and its occupational health correlates among Turkish firefighters.MethodsThis cross-sectional study examined 428 active-duty male firefighters from major Turkish cities using three validated instruments: the Work Ability Index, Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire, and International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Multivariable linear regression modeling identified independent predictors of work ability.ResultsMean WAI score was 42.66 ± 5.08, with 11.2% having poor or moderate work ability. High prevalence of overweight/obesity (76%) and WMSDs particularly lower back (16%) and neck (12%) was observed. Age was the strongest independent predictor (β = -0.277, 95% CI: [-0.221 to -0.087], p < 0.001). WMSDs showed robust negative association with work ability (β = -0.200, 95% CI: [-3.080 to -1.187], p < 0.001) when controlling for age and physical activity. Chronic disease was significantly associated with lower WAI scores (p < 0.001).ConclusionWhile the overall work ability of active-duty Turkish firefighters is high, age-related decline and chronic health conditions are significantly associated with reduced capacity. These associative findings highlight the need for targeted health surveillance, though they must be interpreted cautiously due to potential healthy worker survivor bias inherent in such physically demanding occupational cohorts.
Wearable sensors are emerging as potential safety tools for protecting the respiratory health of workers across industries. This review summarizes recent research and technological advances in wearable sensors that enable continuous monitoring of respiratory metrics, including personal respiratory health and environmental exposure, across diverse workplaces. The review highlights the integration of these sensors into respirators and face masks for real-time monitoring of respiratory status, exposure, and device integrity. To illustrate the practical implications, the paper discusses representative case studies from high-risk sectors, including mining, firefighting, healthcare, construction, and oil and gas. This review reveals that, although several types of wearable respiratory sensors are available for public use, only a few are specifically tailored for occupational respiratory protection. Efforts toward field validation, standards development, user acceptance, and regulatory compliance are needed to translate prototypes into practical tools for occupational risk mitigation. The future of workplace respiratory safety will also benefit from the integration of these sensors with emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, the Internet of Things, and computer vision. This study provides an overview of the current state of wearable respiratory sensors, identifies outstanding challenges that hinder their widespread adoption in occupational settings, and outlines potential avenues for future research to translate them into validated occupational safety tools.
Background: Firefighting is a hazardous occupation, yet data online-of-duty deaths in European firefighter populations remain limited. This study aimed to characterise the mechanisms and circumstances of firefighter fatalities in Poland and to estimate exposure-based fatality rates, with particular attention to differences between career and volunteer personnel. Methods: In this retrospective observational study, line-of-duty firefighter fatalities in Poland from 1995 to 2025 were identified from a nationwide repository and cross-validated against official sources. The mechanism of death was classified from case narratives following the Utstein framework. Group comparisons used chi-square, Fisher's exact, and Welch's tests; multivariable probit regression assessed predictors of mechanism; and per-capita and per-deployment fatality rates were computed using national denominator data. Results: Of 112 fatalities, 73 (65.2%) involved volunteer firefighters. Sudden Cardiac Arrest of Presumed Non-Traumatic origin (SCA-PNT) was the leading mechanism (44.6%), followed by traumatic injury (37.5%). Volunteers were older than career firefighters (46.4 ± 14.0 vs. 34.6 ± 8.7 years; p < 0.001) and more likely to die of SCA-PNT (odds ratio 6.35; 95% confidence interval 2.46-16.40) and during the response phase (odds ratio 5.07; 1.89-13.55). Age was the strongest independent predictor of mechanism. The per-capita fatality rate was higher among career firefighters (incidence rate ratio 5.16), whereas the per-deployment rate was higher among volunteers (incidence rate ratio 2.25). Conclusions: Firefighter mortality in Poland differs by employment status and is strongly age-dependent. Age-stratified cardiovascular surveillance and prevention may be more effective than formation-based approaches.
Long-term use of widespread legacy fluorinated surfactants has certainly set an environmental footprint due to their persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. However, their surface activity remains unmatched, calling for the need for potential substitutes that exhibit parallel surface performance ever since legislative rules were implemented. Through this work, we present the synthesis of shorter fluorinated chain-based carboxyamide surfactants having a C4 fluorocarbon group. Two cationic surfactants with homologous groups at the quaternary ammonium position of the surfactant structure were synthesized and characterized using 1H, 13C, and 19F NMR, and IR spectroscopy. The surface activity of the surfactants was analyzed. They showed a lowering in surface tension of up to 19 mN m-1 at critical micelle concentrations ranging from 7 to 12 mmol L-1, as determined using the du Noüy ring method. Their dynamic surface tension, indicating the time-dependent behavior of surfactants in solution, was also determined. The micelle aggregates were characterized for size and morphology using DLS and TEM. Further, the application of surfactants was explored for foaming and wetting. Both surfactants demonstrated promising results, reducing the contact angle on the hydrophobic PTFE surface to 10-12° within 120 s. Overall, the surfactants are prospective alternatives to the legacy long-chain fluorinated counterparts and offer applications in firefighting and coating domains.
Firefighting is a physically demanding occupation with sex-neutral minimum physiological performance requirements. Whilst 9% of UK firefighters are female, there has been no systematic review of scientific literature concerning their role-specific physiology and performance. To summarise UK-based literature concerning female firefighters within four key areas: physical demands of operational tasks, testing and training, injuries, and influence of female-specific physiology on training task performance and injury. This systematic scoping review adopted the 5-step framework for conducting scoping reviews from Arksey and O'Malley [34], alongside The SPIDER tool to identify and summarise peer-reviewed data for female UK firefighters. Four papers were identified, including 31 females. Hose running imposed the highest physical demand on females (44.0 ml·kg-1·min-1). Mean maximal aerobic capacity values were 44.4 ± 5.5 ml·kg-1·min-1 (directly measured) and 46.9 ± 6.7 ml·kg-1·min-1 (estimated), assuming normal distribution, approximately 35% of the population would not meet the threshold of 42.3 ml·kg-1·min-1. Mean Firefighter Simulation Performance of females was 7.4 seconds slower than the passing requirements. No published data were available involving fitness interventions, injuries or female-specific considerations. There is a paucity of UK-based research exploring the assessment, maintenance and development of physical fitness and occupational performance in female firefighters. Further research is needed to expand the current evidence-base relating to the occupational demands of female firefighters and physical fitness testing to inform policies by using a more representative evidence-base. Additionally, this work highlighted the absence of published research related to fitness training, injury surveillance and female-specific considerations.