Clean and undamaged skeletons that maintain natural anatomical shape are essential for anatomical collections and natural history museums. Conventional methods, such as maceration, chemical treatments, or dermestid beetle colonies, although commonly used, often require long processing times, pose biohazard risks, and may damage delicate bones. This study explores the use of superworms (Zophobas morio) as a biological alternative for skeletal cleaning. Controlled cleaning trials were conducted using specimens from various vertebrate groups and a range of size classes, categorized as small, medium, and large after removal of superficial tissues. As the larva to specimen ratio strongly influences cleaning time and effectiveness, we first standardized our setup by processing all specimens in identical containers, each with approximately 700 grams of superworms, allowing us to assess the optimal ratio. Our results showed that a high larva to specimen ratio led to damage of fragile bones, while lower ratios resulted in increased cleaning times. Through multiple trials, we suggest that a larva to specimen ratio of 10-15 balances efficient cleaning with minimal risk of bone damage. Applying this ratio to additional bird skulls resulted in thorough cleaning with no observed bone damage. Superworms removed soft tissues within hours to days, depending on specimen size, and were able to clean internal cavities that are typically difficult to reach. Unlike dermestid beetle colonies, which include multiple life stages and pose a higher risk of infestation or egg dispersal, superworms are limited to the larval stage, reducing such risks. Our findings demonstrate that superworms offer a rapid, adaptable, and museum-safe alternative to conventional skeletal cleaning methods, providing an efficient and practical option for scientific and curatorial settings. Superworms are readily available from commercial breeders, and maintaining a colony is straightforward, further supporting their use as a viable alternative for skeletal preparation.
Recent studies have demonstrated superworms (larvae of Zophobas atratus) ability to degrade polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polypropylene (PP) within their digestive system. This study aimed to compare the ability of superworms to degrade the above four polyolefin plastics over a duration of 30 days. In this study, the degradation rate of PE was the highest, and the final average weight of superworms, as well as the final plastic mass loss consumed by them, significantly increased (73.38 % and 52.33 %, respectively) when PE was fed with wheat bran (1:1 [w/w]). FTIR and TGA indicated the occurrence of oxidation and biodegradation processes in the four polyolefin plastics when exposed to superworms. In addition, the molecular weights (Mw and Mn) of excreted polymer residues decreased by 3.1 % and 2.87 % in PE-fed superworms, suggesting that the depolymerization of PE was not entirely dependent on the gut microbial community. The analysis of the gut microbial communities revealed that the dominant microbial community were different for each type of plastic. The results indicate that the gut microbiome of superworms exhibited remarkable adaptability in degrading various types of plastics, and the intake preferences and efficiency of different plastics are associated with different dominant microbial community species.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has been an environmental concern due to its persistence and potential toxicity of degraded chlorinated intermediates and plasticizers. Although previous evidence indicates that plastivorous mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) can biodegrade PVC, present study demonstrates that superworms (Zophobas atratus), another member in Tenebrionidae family, are capable of degrading high-purity, rigid PVC microplastics (MPs), addressing critical gaps in the mechanistic understanding of insect-mediated PVC biodegradation. Biodegradation was unequivocally confirmed via a multi-analytical framework: mass reduction of ingested PVC, gel permeation chromatography (GPC) characterized by broad depolymerization (reduction in Mw, Mn, and Mz of the residual polymers by 18.03%, 24.04%, and 10.26%, respectively), and biological metabolism by δ13C analysis. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) confirmed extensive chemical oxidation and dechlorination, while thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) demonstrated reduced thermal stability. The larvae achieved a specific PVC removal rate (SPRR) of 13.2 ± 0.8 mg/100 larvae·day, while removal efficiency reached 40.5% ± 1.2%, mainly converting to chlorinated organic intermediates and releasing 1.29% as chloride. This study provides crucial insights into PVC biodegradation, revealing that the PVC/wheat bran (WB) co-dieting ratio (100%, 80%, 50%, 30%, 20%, and 10%) alters the degradation efficiency and depolymerization pattern of PVC. Furthermore, this degradation process induces elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as •OH and H2O2, driven by synergistic gut microbial activities and host responses. These findings clarify the complex host-microbe interplay governing PVC biodegradation and provide new, verifiable insights into insect- and gut microbe-mediated plastic biodegradation.
Zophobas morio larvae could degrade plastics, but the degradation efficiency was limit. This study analyzed the plastic consumption ability of larvae, and found that with the intake of plastics, the plastic consumption of larvae decreased and the gut microbiota was disorder. Interestingly, the frass of larvae fed with wheat bran supplemented to plastic-degrading larvae, could significantly increase the plastic consumption ability of the larvae, along with significantly recovered gut microbiota and its metabolite including short chain fatty acids and appetite-promoting neurotransmitters γ-aminobutyric acid. Moreover, the genes of intestinal tissue related to gut homeostasis, cell growth, immune system, and digestive system were also regulated. In vitro studies have shown that fresh frass could provide viable Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactococcus cremoris, and Ligilactobacillus salivarius, all of which possess the ability to produce γ-aminobutyric acid. This study realizes waste valorization of traditionally reared larvae's frass and synergistic potential of traditional rearing with plastic degradation.
Recent discoveries indicate that several insect larvae are capable of ingesting and biodegrading plastics rapidly and symbiotically, but the ecological adaptability of the larval gut microbiome to microplastics (MPs) remains unclear. Here, we described the gut microbiome assemblage and MP biodegradation of superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae) fed MPs of five major petroleum-based polymers (polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate) and antibiotics. The shift of molecular weight distribution, characteristic peaks of C═O, and metabolic intermediates of residual polymers in egested frass proved depolymerization and biodegradation of all MPs tested in the larval intestines, even under antibiotic suppression. Superworms showed a wide adaptation to the digestion of the five polymer MPs. Antibiotic suppression negatively influenced the survival rate and plastic depolymerization patterns. The larval gut microbiomes differed from those fed MPs and antibiotics, indicating that antibiotic supplementation substantially shaped the gut microbiome composition. The larval gut microbiomes fed MPs had higher network complexity and stability than those fed MPs and antibiotics, suggesting that the ecological robustness of the gut microbiomes ensured the functional adaptability of larvae to different MPs. In addition, Mantel's test indicated that the gut microbiome assemblage was obviously related to the polymer type, the plastic degradability, antibiotic stress, and larval survival rate. This finding provided novel insights into the self-adaptation of the gut microbiome of superworms in response to different MPs.
Bioplastics offer a promising solution to plastic pollution, however, their production frequently relies on edible biomass, and their degradation rates remain inadequate. This study investigates the potential of superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae) for polybutylene succinate (PBS) waste management, aiming to achieve both resource recovery and biodegradation. Superworms exclusively fed on PBS for a month exhibited the same survival rate as those on a standard bran diet. PBS digestion yielded a 5.13% weight gain and a 23.23% increase in protein composition in superworms. Additionally, carbon isotope analyses substantiated the conversion of PBS into superworm components. Gut microbes capable of PBS biodegradation became progressively prominent, further augmenting the degradation rate of PBS under composting conditions (ISO 14855-1). Gut-free superworms fed with PBS exhibited antioxidant activities comparable to those of blueberries, renowned for their high antioxidant activity. Based on these findings, this study introduces a sustainable circular solution encompassing recycling PBS waste to generate insect biomass, employing insect gut and frass for PBS degradation and fertilizer, and harnessing insect residue as a food source. In essence, the significance of this research extends to socio-economic and environmental spheres, impacting waste management, resource efficiency, circular economy promotion, environmental preservation, industrial advancement, and global sustainability objectives. The study's outcomes possess the potential to reshape society's approach to plastic waste, facilitating a shift toward more sustainable paradigms.
Plastics biodegradation by insect larvae is considered as a new strategy for plastic wastes treatment. To uncover the biodegradation of a more complex chemical polymer of melamine formaldehyde (MF) by insect larvae, two worm species of yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor and superworm Zophobas atratus were fed on MF foam as sole diet for 45 days with sole bran diet as control. Although the MF foam consumption by yellow mealworms of 0.38 mg/d/g-larvae was almost 40% higher than that by superworms of 0.28 mg/d/g-larvae, a similar decrease of survival rates in both species were obtained at about 58%, indicating the adverse effects on their growth. Depolymerization and biodegradation of MF foam occurred in both larval guts, but was more extensive in yellow mealworms. MF foam sole diet influenced gut bacterial and fungal microbiomes of both larvae species, which were assessed by Illumina MiSeq on day 45. Compared to the bran-fed group, both gut bacterial and fungal communities significantly changed in MF-fed groups, but differed in the two larvae species. The results demonstrated a strong association between the distinctive gut microbiome and MF foam degradation, such as unclassified Enterobacteriaceae, Hyphopichia and Issatchenkia. However, sole MF foam diet negatively influenced worms, like lower survival rates and gut abnormalities. In summary, MF foam could be degraded by both yellow mealworms and superworms, albeit with adverse effects. Gut microbes were strongly associated to MF foam degradation, especially the gut fungi.
Superworm (larve of Zophobas atratus) could consume foams of expanded polystyrene plastics. However, there is no sufficient understanding of the impact of microplastics on superworms and the degradation pathways of polystyrene. Herein, we explored the weight and survival change of superworms while fed with polystyrene microplastics, and found that survival rate and mean weight would reduce. In terms of gut microbial community structure of surperworms, significant shifts were detected with the relative abundance of Hafnia-Obesumbacterium sp. increasing. In addition, we domesticated two microbiota from the gut of superworms, and confirmed their ability to degrade PS in vitro. The last but most important, 1291 metabolites were identified by HPLC-TOF-MS/MS, and six metabolites related to polystyrene degradation were identified through comparative metabolomic analysis. According to the content and pathways of these metabolites, three metabolic pathways of polystyrene were (a) styrene-phenylacetyl-CoA-L-2-aminoadipic acid; (b) styrene-phenylacetyl-CoA-benzaldehyde; (c) styrene-2-hydroxyacetophenone. These results would help to further screen bacteria of PS degradation and investigate PS metabolic pathways in invertebrates.
Oxidative decomposition of polystyrene (PS) by insects has been previously demonstrated, yet little is known about the oxidation mechanism and its effect on the metabolism of plastics within the insect gut. Here, we demonstrate the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the gut of superworms (Zophobas atratus larvae) under different feeding trails, which in turn induced the oxidative decomposition of ingested PS. The ROS were commonly generated in the larva gut, and PS consumption resulted in a significant increase of ROS with a maximum ·OH of 51.2 μmol/kg, which was five times higher than in the bran feeding group. Importantly, scavenging of ROS significantly decreased the oxidative depolymerization of PS, indicating a vital role of ROS in effective PS degradation in the gut of superworms. Further investigation suggested that the oxidative depolymerization of PS was caused by the combinatorial effect of ROS and extracellular oxidases of gut microbes. These results demonstrate that ROS were extensively produced within the intestinal microenvironment of insect larvae, which greatly favored the digestion of ingested bio-refractory polymers. This work provides new insights into the underlying biochemical mechanisms of plastic degradation in the gut.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is one of the widely used plastic products worldwide, and its accumulation in the natural environment has become a major global issue with regard to the environment and biotic health. There is accordingly strong demand for the development of solutions and methods for environmental remediation. Degrading plastic waste using microorganisms is an effective and eco-friendly method. However, evidence of bacteria that afford efficient biodegradation of unplasticized, pure PVC film has yet to be reported. Therefore, the biodegradation of PVC becomes very important. Here, we present results on the physicochemical and structural studies of PVC by Citrobacter koseri (C. koseri) isolated from the gut of the superworm, Zophobas atratus (Z. atratus) larvae. We also studied the biodegradability of PVC by the gut microbiota compared with C. koseri. We analyzed the microbial degradation of the PVC surface using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and confirmed that the physical and chemical changes were caused by C. koseri and the gut microbiota. The chemical structural changes were further investigated using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier-transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and it was confirmed that the oxidation of the PVC surface proceeded with the formation of carbonyl groups (C = O), and hydroxyl groups (-OH) by C. koseri. Additionally, the gut microbiota composed of diverse microbial species showed equal oxidation of PVC compared to C. koseri. Further, we evaluated the capabilities of single bacterial isolate and gut microbiota for pure PVC film biodegradation. Our results verified that C. koseri and the culturable microbiota from the gut of superworms present similar potential to utilize pure PVC film as a carbon source. These findings provide a potential solution for the biodegradation of unplasticized PVC.
To isolate polystyrene-degrading bacteria from the gut of superworms and investigate their ability to degrade polystyrene (PS). Three PS-degrading bacteria identified as Pseudomonas sp. EDB1, Bacillus sp. EDA4 and Brevibacterium sp. EDX were successfully isolated from the gut of superworms (Zophobas atratus Larvae) that ingest PS. Incubating PS with each strain for 30-day led to the formation of biofilm on the PS film. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed considerable damage (in terms of pits formation) on the surface of the PS films. FTIR analysis suggested the incorporation of carbonyl group into the carbon backbone of PS. Decreasing of WCA of microbial-treated PS film confirmed a chemical change from hydrophobicity to hydrophilicity on the PS surface. Based on these results, we conclude that all isolates had the ability to degrade PS. Brevibacterium sp. EDX (GenBank MZ32399) was isolated as the most efficient PS-degrading strain based on the most changing in both PS surface morphology (SEM and WCA analyses) and chemical modification (FTIR analysis) in its PS degradation process. This was the first study to describe the PS degradation by Brevibacterium sp. EDX, and thus provided for its development in the plastic remediation process.
Insects are increasingly recognized as sustainable protein sources due to their high feed conversion efficiency and low environmental impact. Among them, the superworm, Zophobas morio (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), has strong potential for large-scale production; however, optimized feeding strategies under tropical conditions remain limited. This study aimed (1) to determine the optimal feed formulations and feeding rate using wheat bran supplemented with the KMITL Protein Innovation source (a protein feed ingredient developed by the School of Agricultural Technology, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, KMITL), and (2) evaluate the influence of plant-based supplementary foods on larval performance. In Phase I, larvae were reared on 13 formulations with three protein levels (CP00, CP21, and CP24) and five feeding rates (A-E). Diets CP21-21 and CP24-21 (21 and 24% CP; wheat bran/protein = 2:1) resulted in the highest survival (83.4-84.1%) and the lowest feed conversion ratios (FCR = 2.29-2.34). Moderate feeding rates (C-D; 925-1110 g feed per tray for 50 days) produced the greatest larval weights (700-760 mg), whereas ad libitum feeding provided no additional benefit. In Phase II, larvae reared on CP21-21 with a restricted rate of 1100 g per tray and supplemented with ten plant-derived foods achieved comparable final weights (716-760 mg), but survival varied significantly among treatments. Mulberry leaf yielded the highest survival (95.3%), followed by banana, watermelon rind, winter melon, and jicama (>90%). Pumpkin and jicama accelerated pupation and adult emergence, showing a female-biased sex ratio among emerged adults (59.2-65.5%), suggesting enhanced developmental rates. These results establish a practical framework for cost-effective and sustainable Z. morio production under tropical conditions, contributing to circular bioeconomy strategies and supporting insect-protein innovation.
The accurate identification of early-instar larvae of Tenebrionidae pests during grain storage is frequently hindered by their morphological similarities, often resulting in inadequately targeted control measures that significantly impact storage security and economic loss mitigation. To address this issue, attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy was integrated with chemometrics in this study. First-instar larval samples from six common pests, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer, 1797), Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus, 1758, Tenebrio obscurus Fabricius, 1792, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst, 1797), Ulomoides dermestoides (Chevrolat, 1878) and Zophobas atratus (Fabricius, 1775) were systematically collected, and 1080 FTIR spectra were acquired. Four machine learning classification models: Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGB), and Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) were subsequently established. The results indicated that differences in proteins, lipids, and chitin likely contributed predominantly to the classification performance. Although Principal Component Analysis (PCA) did not reveal distinct species clustering, likely due to the dominance of high-abundance structural components, the supervised machine learning models presented excellent classification performance. Notably, the SVM model achieved a classification accuracy of 97.22% on the test set. The identification method combining ATR-FTIR spectral acquisition with chemometric discriminant modeling offers advantages of speed, objectivity, repeatability, and low cost. It not only provides a reliable technical means for the accurate identification of early-instar larvae of stored-product pests but also presents a feasible tool for real-time monitoring and early warning in storage facilities, holding significant application potential in grain storage, quarantine, and integrated pest management.
Recent studies demonstrated that plastic degradation in Zophobas atratus superworms is related to the gut microbiota. To determine whether the biodegradation and gut-microbiota were influenced by ingested plastic polymerization types, foams of polypropylene (PP), polyurethane (PU) and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) were selected as representatives of polyolefins, polyester and copolymers, and the sole feedstock for superworms for 45 d. Both growth and survival rates of superworms were influenced by the type of plastic diet. Although the total consumptions of EVA- and PP-fed groups were similar at 29.03 ± 0.93 and 28.89 ± 1.14 mg/g-larva, which were both significantly higher than that of PU-fed groups (21.63 ± 2.18 mg/g-larva), the final survival rates of the EVA-fed group of 36.67 ± 10.41% exhibited significantly lower than that of the PP- and PU-fed groups of 76.67 ± 2.89% and 75.00 ± 7.07%, respectively, and even the starvation group of 51.67 ± 10.93%. The Illumina MiSeq results revealed similarities in the dominant gut bacterial communities between PU- and EVA-fed groups, with an increase in relative abundance of Lactococcus, but significant differences from the PP-fed groups, which had two predominant genera of unclassified Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus. Compared to bran-fed groups, changes in gut fungal communities were similar across all plastics-fed groups, with an increase in the dominant abundance of Rhodotorula. The abundance of Rhodotorula increased in the order of polyolefin, polyester, and copolymer. In summary, plastic ingestion, larval growth, and changes in gut bacterial and fungal community of superworms were all influenced by foam diets of different polymerization types, and especially influences on the gut microbiomes were different from each other.
Insect-derived oils have emerged as sustainable feed additives in poultry nutrition; however, the effects of superworm oil (SWO) on broiler performance and meat quality remain largely unexplored. Therefore, this study evaluated the effects of dietary SWO supplementation on growth performance, serum biochemical profile, nutrient digestibility, and meat fatty acid composition of broiler chickens over a 35-day feeding period using a completely randomized design. A total of 320 one-day-old Ross-308 broiler chicks were obtained from a commercial hatchery and transported in ventilated boxes under warm conditions using stress-minimizing handling procedures. Upon arrival, chicks were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments, each with four replicates of 20 birds. The control group received a commercial concentrate (crude protein: 228 g kg⁻¹; metabolizable energy: 11.63 MJ kg⁻¹) as the basal diet, formulated according to NRC recommendations and designed to be isoenergetic and isonitrogenous. The remaining three groups received the same basal diet supplemented with SWO at 1.5, 3.0, or 4.5 mL kg⁻¹ of diet. Overall, body weight gain was higher in the SWO-4 group (1920 g) than in the control group (1862 g), and the lowest feed conversion ratio (1.50) was observed in the SWO-4 group. Moreover, serum concentrations of albumin (2.12 vs. 1.32 g dL⁻¹), globulin (3.12 vs. 2.33 g dL⁻¹), and high-density lipoprotein (59.1 vs. 42.2 mg dL⁻¹) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in birds fed the highest level of SWO. Protein digestibility and apparent metabolizable energy were also improved (p < 0.05) in the SWO-4 group. Dietary SWO supplementation reduced the concentrations of saturated fatty acids (C16:0, C17:0, and C18:0) in breast meat, while omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:3n-3 and C22:6n-3) were significantly increased (p < 0.05). Total polyunsaturated fatty acid content was enhanced, and the n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio was reduced in the supplemented groups compared with the control. Overall, dietary supplementation of SWO, particularly at 4.5 mL kg⁻¹, positively influenced growth performance, serum biochemical parameters, nutrient digestibility, and meat fatty acid composition in broiler chickens.
The superworm Zophobas morio, a coleopteran beetle, is widely distributed, adapted to environments with decaying organic material and a well-known secondary pest of stored commodities. The larval stage is found to inhabit in putrid conditions, and so are expected to possess distinct immune adaptations vital for their survival against microbial infections in such environments. Using transcriptome analysis of the entire gut tissue of Z. morio, this work systematically surveyed distinct transcripts involved in various pathways of the innate immune system on a comparative account. This study profiled 113 transcripts in the whole gut tissue associated with the innate immune mechanism in insects. Among them, 39 transcripts were involved in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway, 24 in the Toll signalling pathway, 12 in the immune deficiency (IMD) pathway, 4 in the Janus kinases activating signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway, and 34 transcripts were involved in other immunity-related processes. Analysis of immune-related genes revealed that about one-fourth of the transcripts showed homology to related beetle groups and, to an extent, to human immunity among the functionally annotated transcripts assigned to various categories from the whole larval gut transcriptome of Z. morio. Further, identification of conserved domains in immune genes showing sequence similarity between Z. morio and other insects, with evidence for deep phylogenetic relationships and a shared common evolutionary ancestor through structural and functional homologies. Understanding the resemblances among the important functional genes involved in biological systems, such as immunity, definitely helps in using insects as excellent in vivo experimental model organisms.
Gut microbes are important for saproxylophagous insects, but little is known about the specific types of microbes that we can grow in the lab and how their diet affects them. We characterized aerobic culturable microbes from the superworm Zophobas atratus larvae reared on a standard diet (SD) and a fungal-based diet (FD) using the selective plating and 16S rRNA sequencing of isolates. Five functional groups were cultured: amino acid autotrophs, enterobacteria, yeasts, cellulolytic bacteria, and molds. A quantitative assessment revealed distinct diet-dependent patterns: SD-fed larvae showed the dominance of enterobacteria and amino acid autotrophs, while FD-fed larvae exhibited a higher abundance of enterobacteria and yeasts. Mold populations remained minimal under both diets. A phylogenetic analysis of bacterial isolates showed four core bacterial phyla (Pseudomonadota, Actinobacteria, Bacillota, and Bacteroidota) with diet-sensitive genus-level variations. Pseudomonadota dominated both diets, but certain genera were associated with different diets: Micrococcus and Brucella in the SD versus Citrobacter and Pseudomonas in the FD. Shared genera (Klebsiella, Enterobacter, and Bacillus) may represent a core culturable community. These findings demonstrate the influence of diet on culturable gut microbes while highlighting the need for complementary molecular approaches to study unculturable taxa. The isolated strains provide resources for investigating microbial functions in insect nutrition.
Plastic pollution is one of the biggest current global threats to the environment given that petroleum-based plastic is recalcitrant and can stay in the environment for decades, even centuries, depending on the specific plastic type. Since less than 10% of all plastic made is recycled, and the other solutions (such as incineration or landfill storage) are pollutant methods, new, environmentally friendly solutions are needed. In this regard, the latest biotechnological discovery on this topic is the capability of insect larvae to use plastic polymers as carbon feedstock. This present review describes the most relevant information on the insect larvae capable of degrading plastic, mainly Galleria mellonella (Fabricius, 1798), Tenebrio molitor (Linnaeus, 1758), and Zophobas atratus (Fabricius, 1776), and also adds new information about other less commonly studied "plastivore" insects such as termites. This review covers the literature from the very first work describing plastic degradation by larvae published in 2014 all the way to the very latest research available (till June 2024), focusing on the identification of a wide variety of plastic-degrading microorganisms isolated from larvae guts and on the understanding of the potential molecular mechanisms present for degradation to take place. It also describes the latest discoveries, which include the identification of novel enzymes from waxworm saliva.
Since the discovery of Mangrovibacter plantisponsor in 2010, research on Mangrovibacters (MGBs) has stagnated. Although laboratories worldwide have isolated various MGB strains and deposited their 16S rDNA sequences in the NCBI database, a limited understanding of MGBs has resulted in only a few publications from these collections. Recent advancements in metagenomic technology have revealed the presence of MGBs in a broader range of habitats. Most microbiomes exhibit low MGB abundance (typically <1%). Even in environments with higher prevalence, such as salt-tolerant aerobic granular sludge (75%), the gut of superworms fed with polyurethane (22%), or fermented foods like mandai (16%), the functional roles of MGBs remain unclear. Through meticulous curation of publications and data from MicrobeAtlas and AMIBASE, MGBs can be classified as free living, endophytic, or zoonotic. Recent evidence suggests their presence in food sources and potential interactions with humans. Current studies confirm the coexistence of MGBs with humans. This review underscores the phenotypic features and genomic foundations of MGBs, highlighting attributes such as endophytic behavior, diverse metabolite utilization, tolerance to salinity and pH, metal homeostasis, biofilm formation, and bioremediation potential. Insights are derived from the analysis of four MGB genomes deposited in NCBI since 2014, along with three newly reported genomes in 2024. Experimental and genetic evidence suggests that MGBs act as "generalist microbes" capable of thriving in diverse nutrient sources and harsh environments. This review elucidates prospective research trajectories and highlights numerous potential commercial applications of MGBs, emphasizing the need for further investigation into their roles and benefits.
Over the years, the study of adult sex ratio is a topic that has gained attention for its impact on reproductive outcomes and aging across various insect species. However, there is still limited research focused on insects reared for food and feed production. To address this gap, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of different adult sex ratios on the reproductive dynamics and longevity of the superworm, Zophobas morio (F.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), a species with interesting potential as a nutrient source. In this study, we assessed three adult sex ratios, i.e., 5:5, 6:4 and 8:2 (female:male) with mesh used to each setup. An additional 5:5 sex ratio without mesh served as control. On a weekly basis, adult survival, egg production, and egg hatching rates were recorded. Our results revealed statistically significant differences in egg production across the different sex ratios tested, but no statistically significant differences in hatching rates and adult survival. These findings suggest that both balanced and female-biased sex ratios are suitable for Z. morio and that it is important to consider this factor when enhancing efficiency in large-scale insect production.