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Abstract Bat wing morphology is considered in relation to flight performance and flight behaviour to clarify the functional basis for eco-morphological correlations in flying animals. Bivariate correlations are presented between wing dimensions and body mass for a range of bat families and feeding classes, and principal-components analysis is used to measure overall size, wing size and wing shape. The principal components representing wing size and wing shape (as opposed to overall size) are interpreted as being equivalent to wing loading and to aspect ratio. Relative length and area of the hand-wing or wingtip are determined independently of wing size, and are used to derive a wingtip shape index, which measures the degree of roundedness or pointedness of the wingtip. The optimal wing form for bats adapted for different modes of flight is predicted by means of mechanical and aerodynamic models. We identify and model aspects of performance likely to influence flight adaptation significantly; these include selective pressures for economic forward flight (low energy per unit time or per unit distance (equal to cost of transport)), for flight at high or low speeds, for hovering, and for turning. "Turning performance is measured by two quantities: manoeuvrability, referring to the minimum space required for a turn at a given speed; and agility, relating to the rate at which a turn can be initiated. High flight speed correlates with high wing loading, good manoeuvrability is favoured by low wing loading, and turning agility should be associated with fast flight and with high wing loading. Other factors influencing wing adaptations, such as migration, flying with a foetus or young or carrying loads in flight (all of which favour large wing area), flight in cluttered environments (short wings) and modes of landing, are identified. The mechanical predictions are cast into a size-independent principal-components form, and are related to the morphology and the observed flight behaviour of different species and families of bats. In this way we provide a broadly based functional interpretation of the selective forces that influence wing morphology in bats. Measured flight speeds in bats permit testing of these predictions. Comparison of open-field free-flight speeds with morphology confirms that speed correlates with mass, wing loading and wingtip proportions as expected; there is no direct relation between speed and aspect ratio. Some adaptive trends in bat wing morphology are clear from this analysis. Insectivores hunt in a range of different ways, which are reflected in their morphology. Bats hawking high-flying insects have small, pointed wings which give good agility, high flight speeds and low cost of transport. Bats hunting for insects among vegetation, and perhaps gleaning, have very short and rounded wingtips, and often relatively short, broad wings, giving good manoeuvrability at low flight speeds. Many insectivorous species forage by ‘ flycatching ’ (perching while seeking prey) and have somewhat similar morphology to gleaners. Insectivorous species foraging in more open habitats usually have slightly longer wings, and hence lower cost of transport. Piscivores forage over open stretches of water, and have very long wings giving low flight power and cost of transport, and unusually long, rounded tips for control and stability in flight. Carnivores must carry heavy loads, and thus have relatively large wing areas; their foraging strategies consist of perching, hunting and gleaning, and wing structure is similar to that of insectivorous species with similar behaviour. Perching and hovering nectarivores both have a relatively small wing area: this surprising result may result from environmental pressure for a short wingspan or from the advantage of high speed during commuting flights; the large wingtips of these bats are valuable for lift generation in slow flight. The relation between flight morphology (as an indicator of flight behaviour) and echolocation is considered. It is demonstrated that adaptive trends in wing adaptations are predictably and closely paralleled by echolocation call structure, owing to the joint constraints of flying and locating food in different ways. Pressures on flight morphology depend also on size, with most aspects of performance favouring smaller animals. Power rises rapidly as mass increases; in smaller bats the available energy margin is greater than in larger species, and they may have a more generalized repertoire of flight behaviour. Trophic pressures related to feeding strategy and behaviour are also important, and may restrict the size ranges of different feeding classes: insectivores and primary nectarivores must be relatively small, carnivores and frugivores somewhat larger. The relation of these results to bat community ecology is considered, as our predictions may be tested through comparisons between comparable, sympatric species. Our mechanical predictions apply to all bats and to all kinds of bat communities, but other factors (for example echolocation) may also contribute to specialization in feeding or behaviour, and species separation may not be determined solely by wing morphology or flight behaviour. None the less, we believe that our approach, of identifying functional correlates of bat flight behaviour and identifying these with morphological adaptations, clarifies the eco-morphological relationships of bats.

The flight of insects has fascinated physicists and biologists for more than a century. Yet, until recently, researchers were unable to rigorously quantify the complex wing motions of flapping insects or measure the forces and flows around their wings. However, recent developments in high-speed videography and tools for computational and mechanical modeling have allowed researchers to make rapid progress in advancing our understanding of insect flight. These mechanical and computational fluid dynamic models, combined with modern flow visualization techniques, have revealed that the fluid dynamic phenomena underlying flapping flight are different from those of non-flapping, 2-D wings on which most previous models were based. In particular, even at high angles of attack, a prominent leading edge vortex remains stably attached on the insect wing and does not shed into an unsteady wake, as would be expected from non-flapping 2-D wings. Its presence greatly enhances the forces generated by the wing, thus enabling insects to hover or maneuver. In addition, flight forces are further enhanced by other mechanisms acting during changes in angle of attack, especially at stroke reversal, the mutual interaction of the two wings at dorsal stroke reversal or wing-wake interactions following stroke reversal. This progress has enabled the development of simple analytical and empirical models that allow us to calculate the instantaneous forces on flapping insect wings more accurately than was previously possible. It also promises to foster new and exciting multi-disciplinary collaborations between physicists who seek to explain the phenomenology, biologists who seek to understand its relevance to insect physiology and evolution, and engineers who are inspired to build micro-robotic insects using these principles. This review covers the basic physical principles underlying flapping flight in insects, results of recent experiments concerning the aerodynamics of insect flight, as well as the different approaches used to model these phenomena.

Abstract Insects in free flight were filmed at 5000 frames per second to determine the motion of their wings and bodies. General comments are offered on flight behaviour and manoeuvrability. Changes in the tilt of the stroke plane with respect to the horizontal provides kinematic control of manoeuvres, analogous to the type of control used for helicopters. A projection analysis technique is described that solves for the orientation of the animal with respect to a cam era-based coordinate system, giving full kinematic details for the longitudinal wing and body axes from single-view films. The technique can be applied to all types of flight where the wing motions are bilaterally symmetrical: forward, backward and hovering flight, as well as properly banked turns. An analysis of the errors of the technique is presented, and shows that the reconstructed angles for wing position should be accurate to within 1-2° in general. Although measurement of the angles of attack was not possible, visual estimations are given. Only 11 film sequences show flight velocities and accelerations that are small enough for the flight to be considered as ‘hovering’. Two sequences are presented for a hover-fly using an inclined stroke plane, and nine sequences of hovering with a horizontal stroke plane by another hover-fly, two crane-flies, a drone-fly, a ladybird beetle, a honey bee, and two bumble bees. In general, oscillations in the body position from its mean motion are within measurement error, about 1-2 % of the wing length. The amplitudes of oscillation for the body angle are only a few degrees, but the phase relation of this oscillation to the wingbeat cycle could be determined for a few sequences. The phase indicates that the pitching moments governing the oscillations result from the wing lift at the ends of the wingbeat, and not from the wing drag or inertial forces. The mean pitching moment of the wings, which determines the mean body angle, is controlled by shifting the centre of lift over the cycle by changing the mean positional angle of the flapping wings. Deviations of the wing tip path from the stroke plane are never large, and no consistent pattern could be found for the wing paths of different insects; indeed, variations in the path were even observed for individual insects. The wing motion is not greatly different from simple harmonic motion, but does show a general trend towards higher accelerations and decelerations at either end of the wingbeat, with constant velocities during the middle of half-strokes. Root mean square and cube root mean cube angular velocities are on average about 4 and 9% lower than simple harmonic motion. Angles of attack are nearly constant during the middle of half-strokes, typically 35° at a position 70 % along the wing length. The wing is twisted along its length, with angles of attack at the wing base some 10-20° greater than at the tip. The wings rotate through about 110° at either end of the wingbeat during 10-20 % of the cycle period. The mean velocity of the wing edges during rotation is similar to the mean flapping velocity of the wing tip and greater than the flapping velocity for more proximal wing regions, which indicates that vortex shedding during rotation is com parable with that during flapping. The wings tend to rotate as a flat plate during the first half of rotation, which ends just before, or at, the end of the half-stroke. The hover-fly using an inclined stroke plane provides a notable exception to this general pattern : pronation is delayed and overlaps the beginning of the downstroke. The wing profile flexes along a more or less localized longitudinal axis during the second half of rotation, generating the ‘flip’ profile postulated by Weis-Fogh for the hover-flies. This profile occurs to some extent for all of the insects, and is not exceptionally pronounced for the hover-fly. By the end of rotation the wings are nearly flat again, although a slight camber can sometimes be seen. Weis-Fogh showed that beneficial aerodynamic interference can result when the left and right wings come into contact during rotation at the end of the wingbeat. His ‘fling’ mechanism creates the circulation required for wing lift on the subsequent half-stroke, and can be seen on my films of the Large Cabbage White butterfly, a plum e moth, and the Mediterranean flour moth. However, their wings ‘peel’ apart like two pieces of paper being separated, rather than fling open rigidly about the trailing edges. A ‘partial fling’ was found for some insects, with the wings touching only along posterior wing areas. A ‘ near fling ’ with the wings separated by a fraction of the chord was also observed for m any insects. There is a continuous spectrum for the separation distance between the wings, in fact, and the separation can vary for a given insect during different manoeuvres. It is suggested that these variants on Weis-Fogh’s fling mechanism also generate circulation for wing lift, although less effectively than a complete fling, and that changes in the separation distance may provide a fine control over the amount of lift produced.

▪ Abstract “What force does an insect wing generate?” Finding answers to this enduring question is an essential step toward our understanding of interactions of moving objects with fluids that enable most living species such as insects, birds, and fish to travel efficiently and us to follow similar suit with sails, oars, and airfoils. We give a brief history of research in insect flight and discuss recent findings in unsteady aerodynamics of flapping flight at intermediate range Reynolds numbers ([Formula: see text]). In particular, we examine the unsteady mechanisms in uniform and accelerated motions, forward and hovering flight, as well as passive flight of free-falling objects. The results obtained by “taking the insects apart” helped us to resolve previous puzzles about the force estimates in hovering insects, to ellucidate basic mechanisms essential to flapping flight, and to gain insights about the efficieny of flight.

ABSTRACT The co-ordination of the flight movements of Schistocerca gregaria Forskål was examined in order to determine the extent of central patterning and reflex control. Electrical recordings from wing sensory nerves showed many units which responded to wing movements of various kinds. During flight the sensory discharge was timed to certain phases of the wing-beat cycle. Surgical removal of the sources of timed input did not abolish patterned output, which resembled that during flight, but the frequency of cycling was considerably reduced. Either electrical stimulation of the nerve cord or continuous wind on the head could elicit the pattern. A multiplicity of oscillators in the flight control system was demonstrated. It is suggested that the basic co-ordination of flight is an inherent function of the central nervous system but that peripheral feedback loops influence the frequency of operation and details of pattern.

Flies are among the most agile flying creatures on Earth. To mimic this aerial prowess in a similarly sized robot requires tiny, high-efficiency mechanical components that pose miniaturization challenges governed by force-scaling laws, suggesting unconventional solutions for propulsion, actuation, and manufacturing. To this end, we developed high-power-density piezoelectric flight muscles and a manufacturing methodology capable of rapidly prototyping articulated, flexure-based sub-millimeter mechanisms. We built an 80-milligram, insect-scale, flapping-wing robot modeled loosely on the morphology of flies. Using a modular approach to flight control that relies on limited information about the robot's dynamics, we demonstrated tethered but unconstrained stable hovering and basic controlled flight maneuvers. The result validates a sufficient suite of innovations for achieving artificial, insect-like flight.

Quadrotor helicopters are emerging as a popular platform for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) research, due to the simplicity of their construction and maintenance, their ability to hover, and their vertical take off and landing (VTOL) capability. Current designs have often considered only nominal operating conditions for vehicle control design. This work seeks to address issues that arise when deviating significantly from the hover flight regime. Aided by well established research for helicopter flight control, three separate aerodynamic effects are investigated as they pertain to quadrotor flight, due to vehicular velocity, angle of attack, and airframe design. They cause moments that affect attitude control, and thrust variation that affects altitude control. Where possible, a theoretical development is first presented, and is then validated through both thrust test stand measurements and vehicle flight tests using the Stanford Testbed of Autonomous Rotorcraft for Multi-Agent Control (STARMAC) quadrotor helicopter. The results enabled improved controller performance. I.

Modern microprocessor technology and display systems make it entirely feasible to automate many of the flight-deck functions previously performed manually. There are many benefits to be derived from automation; the question today is not whether a function can be automated, but whether it should be, due to various human factors issues. It is highly questionable whether total system safety is always enhanced by allocating functions to automatic devices rather than human operators, and there is some reason to believe that flight-deck automation may have already passed its optimum point. This is an age-old question in the human factors profession, and there are few guidelines available to the system designer. This paper presents the state-of-the-art in human factors in flight-deck automation, identifies a number of critical problem areas, and offers broad design guidelines. Some automation-related aircraft accidents and incidents are discussed as examples of human factors problems in automated flight.

INTRODUCTION: Astronauts soaring through space modules with the grace of birds seems counterintuitive. How do they adapt to the weightless environment? Previous spaceflights have shown that astronauts in orbit adapt their motor strategies to each change in their gravitational environment. During adaptation, performance is degraded and can lead to mission-threatening injuries. If adaptation can occur before a mission, productivity during the mission might improve, minimizing risk. The goal is to combine kinetic and kinematic data to examine translational motions during microgravity adaptations. METHODS: Experiments were performed during parabolic flights aboard NASA's C-9. Five subjects used their legs to push off from a sensor, landing on a target 3.96 m (13 ft) away. The sensor quantified the kinetics during contact, while four cameras recorded kinematics during push-off. Joint torques were calculated for a subset of traverses (N = 50) using the forces, moments, and joint angles. RESULTS: During the 149 traverses, the average peak force exerted onto the sensor was 224.6 +/- 74.6 N, with peak values ranging between 65.8-461.9 N. Two types of force profiles were observed, some having single, strong peaks (N = 64) and others having multiple, weaker peaks (N = 86). CONCLUSIONS: The force data were consistent with values recorded previously in sustained microgravity aboard Mir and the Space Shuttle. A training program for astronauts might be designed to encourage fine-control motions (i.e., multiple, weaker peaks) as these reduce the risk of injury and increase controllability. Additionally, a kinematic and kinetic sensor suite was successfully demonstrated in the weightless environment onboard the C-9 aircraft.

The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.

Introduction to Flight 6e Chapter 1: The First Aeronautical Engineers Chapter 2: Fundamental Thoughts Chapter 3: The Standard Atmosphere Chapter 4: Basic Aerodynamics Chapter 5: Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamics Shapes Chapter 6: Elements of Airplane Performance Chapter 7: Principles of Stability and Control Chapter 8: Space Flight (Astronautics) Chapter 9: Propulsion Chapter 10: Flight Vehicle Structures and Materials Chapter 11: Hypersonic Vehicles Appendix A Standard Atmosphere, SI Units Appendix B Standard Atmosphere, English Engineering Units Appendix C Symbols and Conversion Factors Appendix D Airfoil Data

Quantitation of near infrared spectroscopic data in a scattering medium such as tissue requires knowledge of the optical pathlength in the medium. This can now be estimated directly from the time of flight of picosecond length light pulses. Monte Carlo modelling of light pulses in tissue has shown that the mean value of the time dispersed light pulse correlates with the pathlength used in quantitative spectroscopic calculations. This result has been verified in a phantom material. Time of flight measurements of pathlength across the rat head give a pathlength of 5.3 +/- 0.3 times the head diameter.

The book treats the dynamics of atmospheric flight, with special reference to the stability and control of airplanes. An extensive set of numerical examples covers STOL airplane, subsonic jet transport, hypersonic airplane, stability augmentation, and wind and density gradients. The book completely covers equations of motion, including effects of round rotating Earth and distortional motion. There are complete chapters on human pilots and handling qualities and flight in turbulence, with numerical examples for a jet transport. Small-perturbation equations for longitudinal and lateral motion are presented in convenient matrix forms, both in time domain and Laplace transforms, dimensional and non-dimensional. (Author)

ABSTRACT On the assumption that steady-state aerodynamics applies, simple analytical expressions are derived for the average lift coefficient, Reynolds number, the aerodynamic power, the moment of inertia of the wing mass and the dynamic efficiency in animals which perform normal hovering with horizontally beating wings. The majority of hovering animals, including large lamellicom beetles and sphin-gid moths, depend mainly on normal aerofoil action. However, in some groups with wing loading less than 10 N m−2 (1 kgf m−2), non-steady aerodynamics must play a major role, namely in very small insects at low Reynolds number, in true hover-flies (Syrphinae), in large dragonflies (Odonata) and in many butterflies (Lepidoptera Rhopalocera). The specific aerodynamic power ranges between 1·3 and 4·7 WN−1 (11–40 cal h−1 gf−1) but power output does not vary systematically with size, inter alia because the lift/drag ratio deteriorates at low Reynolds number. Comparisons between metabolic rate, aerodynamic power and dynamic efficiency show that the majority of insects require and depend upon an effective elastic system in the thorax which counteracts the bending moments caused by wing inertia. The free flight of a very small chalcid wasp Encarsia formosa has been analysed by means of slow-motion films. At this low Reynolds number (10–20), the high lift coefficient of 2 or 3 is not possible with steady-state aerodynamics and the wasp must depend almost entirely on non-steady flow patterns. The wings of Encarsia are moved almost horizontally during hovering, the body being vertical, and there are three unusual phases in the wing stroke: the clap, the fling and the flip. In the clap the wings are brought together at the top of the morphological upstroke. In the fling, which is a pronation at the beginning of the morphological downstroke, the opposed wings are flung open like a book, hinging about their posterior margins. In the flip, which is a supination at the beginning of the morphological upstroke, the wings are rapidly twisted through about 180°. The fling is a hitherto undescribed mechanism for creating lift and for setting up the appropriate circulation over the wing in anticipation of the downstroke. In the case of Encarsia the calculated and observed wing velocities at which lift equals body weight are in agreement, and lift is produced almost instantaneously from the beginning of the downstroke and without any Wagner effect. The fling mechanism seems to be involved in the normal flight of butterflies and possibly of Drosophila and other small insects. Dimensional and other considerations show that it could be a useful mechanism in birds and bats during take-off and in emergencies. The flip is also believed to be a means of setting up an appropriate circulation around the wing, which has hitherto escaped attention; but its operation is less well understood. It is not confined to Encarsia but operates in other insects, not only at the beginning of the upstroke (supination) but also at the beginning of the downstroke where a flip (pronation) replaces the clap and fling of Encarsia. A study of freely flying hover-flies strongly indicates that the Syrphinae (and Odonata) depend almost entirely upon the flip mechanism when hovering. In the case of these insects a transient circulation is presumed to be set up before the translation of the wing through the air, by the rapid pronation (or supination) which affects the stiff anterior margin before the soft posterior portions of the wing. In the flip mechanism vortices of opposite sense must be shed, and a Wagner effect must be present. In some hovering insects the wing twistings occur so rapidly that the speed of propagation of the elastic torsional wave from base to tip plays a significant role and appears to introduce beneficial effects. Non-steady periods, particularly flip effects, are present in all flapping animals and they will modify and become superimposed upon the steady-state pattern as described by the mathematical model presented here. However, the accumulated evidence indicates that the majority of hovering animals conform reasonably well with that model. Many new types of analysis are indicated in the text and are now open for future theoretical and experimental research.

In this paper, we intend to formulate a new meta-heuristic algorithm, called Cuckoo Search (CS), for solving optimization problems. This algorithm is based on the obligate brood parasitic behaviour of some cuckoo species in combination with the Lévy flight behaviour of some birds and fruit flies. We validate the proposed algorithm against test functions and then compare its performance with those of genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization. Finally, we discuss the implication of the results and suggestion for further research.

We introduce a class of stochastic process, the truncated L\'evy flight (TLF), in which the arbitrarily large steps of a L\'evy flight are eliminated. We find that the convergence of the sum of $n$ independent TLFs to a Gaussian process can require a remarkably large value of $n$---typically $n\ensuremath{\approx}{10}^{4}$ in contrast to $n\ensuremath{\approx}10$ for common distributions. We find a well-defined crossover between a L\'evy and a Gaussian regime, and that the crossover carries information about the relevant parameters of the underlying stochastic process.

The wing motion in free flight has been described for insects ranging from 1 to 100 mm in wingspan. To support the body weight, the wings typically produce 2-3 times more lift than can be accounted for by conventional aerodynamics. Some insects use the fling mechanism: the wings are clapped together and then flung open before the start of the downstroke, creating a lift-enhancing vortex around each wing. Most insects, however, rely on a leading-edge vortex (LEV) created by dynamic stall during flapping; a strong spanwise flow is also generated by the pressure gradients on the flapping wing, causing the LEV to spiral out to the wingtip. Technical applications of the fling are limited by the mechanical damage that accompanies repeated clapping of the wings, but the spiral LEV can be used to augment the lift production of propellers, rotors and micro-air vehicles (MAVs). Design characteristics of insect-based flying machines are presented, along with estimates of the mass supported, the mechanical power requirement and maximum flight speeds over a wide range of sizes and frequencies. To support a given mass, larger machines need less power, but smaller ones operating at higher frequencies will reach faster speeds.

The biomechanics of insect flight: form, function, evolution , The biomechanics of insect flight: form, function, evolution , مرکز فناوری اطلاعات و اطلاع رسانی کشاورزی

A new type of ion gun is described which greatly improves the resolution of a nonmagnetic time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The focusing action of this gun is discussed and analyzed mathematically. The validity of the analysis and the practicability of the gun are demonstrated by the spectra obtained. The spectrometer is capable of measuring the relative abundance of adjacent masses well beyond 100 amu.

The development of a new high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) is reported. The high-resolution capabilities of this instrument allow the direct separation of most ions from inorganic and organic species at the same nominal m/z, the quantification of several types of organic fragments (CxHy, CxHyOz, CxHyNp, CxHyOzNp), and the direct identification of organic nitrogen and organosulfur content. This real-time instrument is field-deployable, and its high time resolution (0.5 Hz has been demonstrated) makes it well-suited for studies in which time resolution is critical, such as aircraft studies. The instrument has two ion optical modes: a single-reflection configuration offers higher sensitivity and lower resolving power (up to approximately 2100 at m/z 200), and a two-reflectron configuration yields higher resolving power (up to approximately 4300 at m/z 200) with lower sensitivity. The instrument also allows the determination of the size distributions of all ions. One-minute detection limits for submicrometer aerosol are <0.04 microg m(-3) for all species in the high-sensitivity mode and <0.4 microg m(-3) in the high-resolution mode. Examples of ambient aerosol data are presented from the SOAR-1 study in Riverside, CA, in which the spectra of ambient organic species are dominated by CxHy and CxHyOz fragments, and different organic and inorganic fragments at the same nominal m/z show different size distributions. Data are also presented from the MIRAGE C-130 aircraft study near Mexico City, showing high correlation with independent measurements of surrogate aerosol mass concentration.