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/NADH coenzyme system. Cells of tissues are direct source of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes that are naturally distributed in blood plasma/serum of animals and humans producing characteristic profile. This profile depends on intracellular isoenzyme concentration in all tissues that contribute to the common pool of lactate dehydrogenases in plasma/serum as a consequence of natural cell degradation. LDH is widely distributed in the body, high activities are found in the heart, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney, and erytrocytes, whereas lesser amounts are found in the lung, smooth muscle, and brain. Because of its widespread activities in numerous body tissues, LDH is elevated in a variety of disorders. There are many conditions that contribute to increased activity of LDH. An elevated total LDH value is a rather nonspecific finding. Therefore, LDH assays assume a more clinical significance when separated into isoenzyme fractions. The activity of LDH and its serum and tissue patterns and composition show great variations between the species. These differences do not allow using catalytic activities of LDH isoenzymes from one species to another. Instead, the pattern of serum LDH isoenzymes should be interpreted in respect to its species origin that is important in particular in veterinary medicine. Determination of total LDH activity and its isoenzyme pattern in serum of mammals had become one of the biochemical indicators in the assessment of organ disorders. When the content of cells is released from tissue to plasma, as on cell injury, the LDH isoenzyme pattern of the serum changes in favour of the profile of the affected organ (tissue) that can be used in the diagnostic practice.
Healthy multiparous Holstein-Friesian cows (n = 22, parity: 2-4) from a large-scale dairy herd in Hungary were subjected to an intravenous glucose tolerance test 10-15 days after calving. AluI genotype of growth hormone, several plasma metabolites and metabolic hormones were determined, and current and previous lactation yields were recorded. We also used the Revised Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index (RQUICKI) and its modified version (RQUICKIBHB) for the estimation of peripheral insulin sensitivity. The majority of cows (n = 18) was leucine homozygous (LL), four were heterozygous (LV) and there were no valine homozygous (VV) animals in the population. Current average milk production was not different between AluI genotypes, but LV cows tended to have higher 305-day previous lactation yields (P = 0.13). AluI polymorphism was not associated with any of the calculated glucose and leptin parameters of the intravenous glucose tolerance test (P > 0.58). Heterozygous cows were prone to higher basal insulin levels (P = 0.064), longer time to reach half of the maximal and basal insulin concentrations (P = 0.035 and P = 0.054, respectively) and larger insulin area under the curve (P = 0.032). Both RQUICKI and RQUICKIBHB estimated decreased insulin sensitivity in LV compared to LL cows (P = 0.055 and P = 0.044, respectively). Higher plasma NEFA and BHB levels accounted for slower glucose disappearance and lower insulin release and insulin clearance rate (P < 0.05). Average yield was inversely related to glucose area under the curve (P = 0.040) and time to reach baseline concentration (P = 0.005). Plasma cortisol lowered glucose clearance rate (P = 0.040) and prolonged time to reach basal levels (P = 0.006). More weight loss was associated with higher glucose peak and prolonged glucose disappearance time (P = 0.055 and P = 0.024, respectively). All cows became cyclic and showed signs of estrus during the study period. There were no differences between leucine homozygous and heterozygous animals in the onset of ovarian activity and in the time of first observed estrus (P > 0.540). We conclude that Holstein-Friesian cows heterozygous for AluI polymorphism of the growth hormone gene may be more likely to develop insulin resistance during early lactation than leucine homozygous cows. Decreased insulin sensitivity could be part of a homeorhetic adaptation process that supports nutrient partioning for the use of the mammary gland and may allow LV cows to reach higher yields throughout lactation.
Approximately 60% of the genome of an adenovirus isolated from a corn snake (Elaphe guttata) was cloned and sequenced. The results of homology searches showed that the genes of the corn snake adenovirus (SnAdV-1) were closest to their counterparts in members of the recently proposed new genus ATADENOVIRUS: In phylogenetic analyses of the complete hexon and protease genes, SnAdV-1 indeed clustered together with the atadenoviruses. The characteristic features in the genome organization of SnAdV-1 included the presence of a gene homologous to that for protein p32K, the lack of structural proteins V and IX and the absence of homologues of the E1A and E3 regions. These characteristics are in accordance with the genus-defining markers of atadenoviruses. Comparison of the cleavage sites of the viral protease in core protein pVII also confirmed SnAdV-1 as a candidate member of the genus ATADENOVIRUS: Thus, the hypothesis on the possible reptilian origin of atadenoviruses (Harrach, Acta Veterinaria Hungarica 48, 484-490, 2000) seems to be supported. However, the base composition of DNA sequence (>18 kb) determined from the SnAdV-1 genome showed an equilibrated GC content of 51%, which is unusual for an atadenovirus.
In poultry farming, great emphasis is placed on the prevention of stresses, including technological ones, which are associated with the intensity of the cultivation and use of poultry in industrial enterprises. The parent flock of poultry farms in the country is being updated by the importation of an incubation egg or daily chickens from the producing country. This leads to transport stress in chickens. It was established that before stress in two linear (group I) and four linear chickens (group II) leukogram parameters corresponded to normal limits, which reflected the physiological level of the body's overall resistance, but in the bloodstream of the hens obtained at the poultry farm, the number of leukocytes, basophils, eosinophils, segmented pseudo-eosinophils was greater, and the number of lymphocytes and monocytes was less. The formation of a stress reaction was accompanied by shifts in the cellular composition of the blood, which were typical for the action of any stress factor. So, in group II chickens, immediately and 1 hour after the simulated stress, the total number of leukocytes increased by 13.35–20.14% (p<0.05). In group I, in the body of two linear hens, the stress reaction was sluggishly current and longer in time. Consequently, the signs of a stress reaction did not stop in the birds during the indicated period, that is, chickens imported from abroad had a low adaptive potential. Their shifts increased gradually and reached a maximum only 24 hours after the action of the stress factor. The revealed features of changes in the leukogram in chickens imported from Germany under the influence of stress are a consequence of their transportation at the age of 24. Keywords: Chickens; Cross; Leukogram; Stress factors References Belay, T., Teeter, R. G. (1993). Broiler water balance and thermo-balance during thermoneutral and high ambient temperature exposure. PoultSci. 72, 116–124. Bueno, J.P.R., Nascimento, M.R.B.M., Martins, J.M.S. et al. (2017). Effect of age and cyclical heat stress on the serum biochemical profile of broiler chickens Influencia da idade e do estresseciclico de calor no perfilbioquimicosericoemfrangos de corte. Semina: Ciencias Agrarias, Londrina, 38(3), 1383– 1392. DOI: 10.5433/1679-0359.2017v38n3p1383. Capitelli, R., Crosta, L. (2013). Overview of psittacine blood analysis and comparative retrospective study of clinical diagnosis, hematology and blood chemistry in selected psittacine species. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 16(1), 71–120. Doi:10.1016/j.cvex.2012.10.002. Cheng, J., Fan, W., Zhao, X. et al. (2016). Oxidative Stress and Histological Alterations of Chicken Brain Induced by Oral Administration of Chromium(III). Biol Trace Elem Res. China Damaziak, K., Michalczuk, M., Zaneta, Z.S. et al. (2017). Effects of genotype on hematological and serum biochemical responses of turkey hens to stress. Archiv fur Tierzucht, 60(1), 9-17. Faixova, Z., Faix, S., Borutova, R., Leng, L. (2010). Effects of feeding diets contaminated with Fusariummycotoxins on blood biochemical parameters of broiler chickens. Acta Veterinaria Hungarica, 58(3), 275–285. Gueguinou, N., Huin-Schohn, C., Ouzren-Zarhloul, N. et al. (2014). Molecular cloning and expression analysis of Pleurodeleswaltl complement component C3 under normal physiological conditions and environmental stresses. Developmental & Comparative Immunology, 46(2), 180–185. DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2014.04.011 Hosseini-Vashan, S.J., Golian, A., Yaghobfar, A. (2016). Growth, immune, antioxidant, and bone responses of heat stress-exposed broilers fed diets supplemented with tomato pomace. International Journal of Biometeorology, 60(8), 1183–1192. DOI:10.1007/s00484-015-1112-9. Lee, K. W., Everts, H., Kappert, H. J. et al. (2003). Effects of dietary essential oil components on growth performance, digestive enzymes and lipid metabolism in female broiler chickens. Br Poult Sci. 44, 450–457. May, J. D., Lott, B. D. (1992). Feed and water intake patters of broilers at high environmental temperatures. PoultSci. 71, 331–336. Mohamed, M. A., Mohamed, M. H. (2009). Haemato-biochemical and pathological studies on aflatoxicosis and treatment of broiler chicks in Egypt. Veterinaria Italiana, 45, 323–337. Novikova, M.V., Lebedeva I.A. (2018). Improvement of reproductive potential of chicken hens from parent broiler flock by means of the use of supplements based on triterpene spirits. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 53(S2), 174. Okuskhanova, E., Rebezov, Ya., Khayrullin, M. et al. (2019). Low-calorie meat food for obesity prevention. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 11(1), 1589-1592. Piotrowska, A., Burlikowska, K., Szymeczko, R. (2011). Changes in blood chemistry in broiler chickens during the fattening period. Folia Biologica (Krakow), 59(3-4), 183–187. DOI: 10.3409/fb59_3-4.183-187 Rani, M.P., Ahmad, N.N., Prasad, P.E., Latha, C.S. (2011). Hematological and Biochemical changes of stunting syndrome in Broiler chicken. Veterinary World, 4(3), 124–125. Rath, N.C., Anthony, N.B., Kannan, L. et al. (2009). Serum ovotransferrin as a biomarker of inflammatory diseases in chickens. Poultry Science, 88(10), 2069–2074. DOI:10.3382/ps.2009-00076 Rozenboim, I., Tako, E., Gal-Garber, O. et al. (2007). The effect of heat stress on ovarian function of laying hens. Poult Sci, 86, 1760–1765. Sabban, E., Kvetnansky, R. (2001). Stress-triggered activation of gene expression in catecholaminergce systems: dynamics of transcriptional events. Trends in Neurosciences. 24, 91-98. Sydykova, M., Nurymkhan, G., Gaptar, S., Rebezov, Ya. et al. (2019). Using of lactic-acid bacteria in the production of sausage products: modern conditions and perspectives. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 11(1), 1073-1083. Sharipova, A., Khaziev, D., Kanareikina, S., Kanareikin, V., Rebezov, M. et al. (2017). The effects of a probiotic dietary supplementation on the amino acid and mineral composition of broilers meat. Annual Research and Review in Biology, 21(6). DOI: 10.9734/ARRB/2017/38429 Soleimani, A.F., Zulkifli, I. (2010). Effects of high ambient temperature on blood parameters in Red Jungle Fowl, Village Fowl and broiler chickens. J. of Animal and Veterinary Advances, 9, 1201–1207. Teke, B. (2019) Survey on dead on arrival of broiler chickens under commercial transport conditions. Large animal review, 25(6), 237-241. Tothova, C., Sesztakova, E., Bielik, B., Nagy, O. (2019). Changes of total protein and protein fractions in broiler chickens during the fattening period. Veterinary World, 12(4), 598–604. DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2019.598-604.
Preservation of female genetics is currently done primarily by means of oocyte and embryo cryopreservation. The field has seen much progress during its four-decade history, progress driven predominantly by research in humans, cows, and mice. Two basic cryopreservation techniques rule the field--controlled-rate freezing, the first to be developed, and vitrification, which, in recent years, has gained a foothold. While much progress has been achieved in human medicine, the cattle industry, and in laboratory animals, this is far from being the case for most other mammals and even less so for other vertebrates. The major strides and obstacles in human and other vertebrate oocyte and embryo cryopreservation will be reviewed here.
The phasing out of antibiotic compounds as growth promoters from the animal industry means that alternative practices will need to be investigated and the promising ones implemented in the very near future. Fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is being recognized as having important implications for health of the gut and thus of the host animal. Fermentation in single-stomached animals occurs to the largest extent in the large intestine, mainly because of the longer transit time there. The present review examines the micro-ecology of the GIT, with most emphasis on the large intestine as the most important site of fermentative activity, and an attempt is made to clarify the importance of the microfloral activity (i.e. fermentation) in relation to the health of the host. The differences between carbohydrate and protein fermentation are described, particularly in relation to their endproducts. The roles of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and NH3 in terms of their relationship to gut health are then examined. The large intestine has an important function in relation to the development of diarrhoea, particularly in terms of VFA production by fermentation and its role in water absorption. Suggestions are made as to feeds and additives (particularly those which are carbohydrate-based) which could be, or are, added to diets and which could steer the natural microbial population of the GIT. Various methods are described which are used to investigate changes in microbial populations and reasons are given for the importance of measuring the kinetics of fermentation activity as an indicator of microbial activity.
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BACKGROUND: Food safety in the food market is one of the key areas of focus in public health, because it affects people of every age, race, gender, and income level around the world. The local and international food marketing continues to have significant impacts on food safety and health of the public. Food supply chains now cross multiple national borders which increase the internationalization of health risks. This systematic review of literature was, therefore, conducted to identify common public health risks related to food safety issues in the food market. METHODS: All published and unpublished quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method studies were searched from electronic databases using a three step searching. Analytical framework was developed using the PICo (population, phenomena of interest, and context) method. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using mixed methods appraisal tool (MMAT) version 2018. The included full-text articles were qualitatively analyzed using emergent thematic analysis approach to identify key concepts and coded them into related non-mutually exclusive themes. We then synthesized each theme by comparing the discussion and conclusion of the included articles. Emergent themes were identified based on meticulous and systematic reading. Coding and interpreting the data were refined during analysis. RESULTS: The analysis of 81 full-text articles resulted in seven common public health risks related with food safety in the food market. Microbial contamination of foods, chemical contamination of foods, food adulteration, misuse of food additives, mislabeling, genetically modified foods (GM foods), and outdated foods or foods past their use-by dates were the identified food safety-related public health risks in the food market. CONCLUSION: This systematic literature review identified common food safety-related public health risks in the food market. The results imply that the local and international food marketing continues to have significant impacts on health of the public. The food market increases internationalization of health risks as the food supply chains cross multiple national borders. Therefore, effective national risk-based food control systems are essential to protect the health and safety of the public. Countries need also assure the safety and quality of their foods entering international trade and ensure that imported foods conform to national requirements.
Cancer is a common problem in dogs and although all breeds of dog and crossbred dogs may be affected, it is notable that some breeds of pedigree dogs appear to be at increased risk of certain types of cancer suggesting underlying genetic predisposition to cancer susceptibility. Although the aetiology of most cancers is likely to be multifactorial, the limited genetic diversity seen in purebred dogs facilitates genetic linkage or association studies on relatively small populations as compared to humans, and by using newly developed resources, genome-wide association studies in dog breeds are proving to be a powerful tool for unravelling complex disorders. This paper will review the literature on canine breed susceptibility to histiocytic sarcoma, osteosarcoma, haemangiosarcoma, mast cell tumours, lymphoma, melanoma, and mammary tumours including the recent advances in knowledge through molecular genetic, cytogenetic, and genome wide association studies.
Helicobacters other than Helicobacter pylori have been associated with gastritis, gastric ulcers, and gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma in humans. These very fastidious microorganisms with a typical large spiral-shaped morphology were provisionally designated "H. heilmannii," but in fact they comprise at least five different Helicobacter species, all of which are known to colonize the gastric mucosa of animals. H. suis, which has been isolated from the stomachs of pigs, is the most prevalent gastric non-H. pylori Helicobacter species in humans. Other gastric non-H. pylori helicobacters colonizing the human stomach are H. felis, H. salomonis, H. bizzozeronii, and the still-uncultivable "Candidatus Helicobacter heilmannii." These microorganisms are often detected in the stomachs of dogs and cats. "Candidatus Helicobacter bovis" is highly prevalent in the abomasums of cattle but has only occasionally been detected in the stomachs of humans. There are clear indications that gastric non-H. pylori Helicobacter infections in humans originate from animals, and it is likely that transmission to humans occurs through direct contact. Little is known about the virulence factors of these microorganisms. The recent successes with in vitro isolation of non-H. pylori helicobacters from domestic animals open new perspectives for studying these microorganisms and their interactions with the host.
Huijser, M. P., J. W. Duffield, A. P. Clevenger, R. J. Ament, and P. T. McGowen. 2009. Cost–benefit analyses of mitigation measures aimed at reducing collisions with large ungulates in the United States and Canada; a decision support tool. Ecology and Society 14(2): 15. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03000-140215
Aquaculture has been expanding in a fast rate, and further development should rely on the assimilation of scientific knowledge of diverse areas such as molecular and cellular biology, and ecology. Understanding the relation between farmed species and their pathogens and parasites, and this relation to environment is a great challenge. Scientific community is involved in building a model for aquaculture that does not harm ecosystems and provides a reliable source of healthy seafood. This book features contributions from renowned international authors, presenting high quality scientific chapters addressing key issues for effective health management of cultured aquatic animals. Available for open internet access, this book is an effort to reach the broadest diffusion of knowledge useful for both academic and productive sector.
The effect of parity (multiparous vs primiparous) and body condition score (BCS; <3.0 or > or =3.0, lean vs fat) at parturition on metabolic and endocrine profiles from 1 month before to 2 months after parturition were studied in 42 Holstein cows grazing on improved pastures. BCS and milk production were determined every 2 weeks. Non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), beta-hydroxy-butyrate (BHB), insulin, IGF-I, leptin, thyroxine (T4) and 3,3',5-tri-iodothyroinine (T3) were determined in plasma every 10 days. Progesterone was determined three times per week after parturition. Primiparous cows had a lower BCS during the early postpartum period and produced less milk than multiparous animals. Primiparous cows had higher NEFA concentrations and they presented more samples with BHB concentrations of >1 mmol/l than multiparous cows. Multiparous cows had higher T3, T4 and IGF-I concentrations, while fat cows had higher leptin and IGF-I concentrations. All hormone concentrations were diminished in the first week postpartum. Primiparous cows and fat cows presented a steeper decay of IGF-I and leptin around parturition than multiparous cows and lean cows. While thyroid hormones and IGF-I showed increasing concentrations from approximately day 30, leptin concentrations remained low until the end of the experimental period. The initiation of ovarian cyclicity was delayed in primiparous cows and especially in primiparous lean cows, consistent with longer intervals from parturition to first service and to conception. The endocrine signals most likely to inform the reproductive axis regarding a negative energy balance were IGF-I and leptin.
Major life history traits, such as fecundity and survival, have been consistently demonstrated to covary positively in nature, some individuals having more resources than others to allocate to all aspects of their life history. Yet, little is known about which resources (or state variables) may account for such covariation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are natural by-products of metabolism and, when ROS production exceeds antioxidant defenses, organisms are exposed to oxidative stress that can have deleterious effects on their fecundity and survival. Using a wild, long-lived bird, the Alpine Swift (Apus melba), we examined whether individual red cell resistance to oxidative stress covaried with fecundity and survival. We found that males that survived to the next breeding season tended to be more resistant to oxidative stress, and females with higher resistance to oxidative stress laid larger clutches. Furthermore, the eggs of females with low resistance to oxidative stress were less likely to hatch than those of females with high resistance to oxidative stress. By swapping entire clutches at clutch completion, we then demonstrated that hatching failure was related to the production of low-quality eggs by females with low resistance to oxidative stress, rather than to inadequate parental care during incubation. Although male and female resistance to oxidative stress covaried with age, the relationships among oxidative stress, survival, and fecundity occurred independently of chronological age. Overall, our study suggests that oxidative stress may play a significant role in shaping fecundity and survival in the wild. It further suggests that the nature of the covariation between resistance to oxidative stress and life history traits is sex specific, high resistance to oxidative stress covarying primarily with fecundity in females and with survival in males.
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Probiotics could represent an effective alternative to the use of synthetic substances in nutrition and medicine. The data concerning the efficacy of probiotics are often contradictory. This paper focuses on the enhancement of the efficacy of probiotics by their combination with synergistically acting components of natural origin. Maltodextrins can be obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis of starch and are suitable for consumption. Administration of Lactobacillus paracasei together with maltodextrin decreased the number of Escherichia coli colonising the jejunal mucosa of gnotobiotic piglets by 1 logarithm compared to the control group. Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) are naturally occurring oligosaccharides, mainly of plant origin. L. paracasei administered in combination with FOS significantly increased counts of Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium spp., total anaerobes and total aerobes compared to the control group as well as the L. paracasei group. It also significantly decreased Clostridium and Enterobacterium counts in the faeces of the weanling piglets compared with the control group. Dietary lipids influence the gastrointestinal microbiota and specifically the population of lactic acid bacteria. In gnotobiotic piglets the oral administration of an oil containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) significantly increased the number of L. paracasei adhering to jejunal mucosa compared to the control group. Our results showed that maltodextrin KMS X-70 and PUFA can be used to enhance the effect of probiotic micro-organisms in the small intestine, and similarly FOS enhance the effect of probiotic micro-organisms in the large intestine.
Hypovitaminosis D is an important public health problem. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) is now recognized as an independent predictor for cardiovascular and related diseases (CVD) as well as other chronic medical conditions. However, the biologic pathways through which these effects are mediated remain poorly understood. We hypothesized that exposing mesenchymal multipotent cells (MMCs) to the active form of vitamin D would increase the expression of selected antifibrotic factors that in turn would ameliorate the progression of chronic diseases. MMCs were primed with 5'-azacytidine to induce a fibrotic phenotype and then treated with active vitamin D (1,25D) or ethanol <0.1% as vehicle in a time course manner (30 min, 1, 5, and 24 h, and for 4 and 7 days). The addition of 1,25D to MMCs promotes: a) increased expression and nuclear translocation of the vitamin D receptor; b) decreased expression of TGFB1 and plasminogen activator inhibitor (SERPINE1), two well-known profibrotic factors; c) decreased expression of collagen I, III and other collagens isoforms; and d) increased expression of several antifibrotic factors such as BMP7 a TGFB1 antagonist, MMP8 a collagen breakdown inducer and follistatin, an inhibitor of the profibrotic factor myostatin. In conclusion, the addition of 1,25D to differentiated MMCs displays a decreased profibrotic signaling pathway and gene expression, leading to decrease in collagen deposition. This study highlights key mechanistic pathways through which vitamin D decreases fibrosis, and provides a rationale for studies to test vitamin D supplementation as a preventive and/or early treatment strategy for CVD and related fibrotic disorders.
// Manish Adhikari 1 , Bhawana Negi 2 , Neha Kaushik 3 , Anupriya Adhikari 4 , Abdulaziz A. Al-Khedhairy 5 , Nagendra Kumar Kaushik 1 and Eun Ha Choi 1 1 Department of Electrical and Biological Physics, Plasma Bioscience Research Center, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea 2 Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India 3 Department of Life Science, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea 4 Department of Chemistry, Kanya Gurukul Campus, Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, India 5 Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Correspondence to: Eun Ha Choi, email: // Nagendra Kumar Kaushik, email: // Keywords : trichothecenes, oxidative damage, apoptosis, herbal antioxidant compounds, decontamination Received : December 22, 2016 Accepted : February 08, 2017 Published : February 16, 2017 Abstract Mycotoxins are highly diverse secondary metabolites produced in nature by a wide variety of fungus which causes food contamination, resulting in mycotoxicosis in animals and humans. In particular, trichothecenes mycotoxin produced by genus fusarium is agriculturally more important worldwide due to the potential health hazards they pose. It is mainly metabolized and eliminated after ingestion, yielding more than 20 metabolites with the hydroxy trichothecenes-2 toxin being the major metabolite. Trichothecene is hazardously intoxicating due to their additional potential to be topically absorbed, and their metabolites affect the gastrointestinal tract, skin, kidney, liver, and immune and hematopoietic progenitor cellular systems. Sensitivity to this type of toxin varying from dairy cattle to pigs, with the most sensitive endpoints being neural, reproductive, immunological and hematological effects. The mechanism of action mainly consists of the inhibition of protein synthesis and oxidative damage to cells followed by the disruption of nucleic acid synthesis and ensuing apoptosis. In this review, the possible hazards, historical significance, toxicokinetics, and the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects along with regulatory guidelines and recommendations pertaining to the trichothecene mycotoxin are discussed. Furthermore, various techniques utilized for toxin determination, pathophysiology, prophylaxis and treatment using herbal antioxidant compounds and regulatory guidelines and recommendations are reviewed. The prospects of the trichothecene as potential hazardous agents, decontamination strategies and future perspectives along with plausible therapeutic uses are comprehensively described.
Despite our knowledge of the protective role of antibodies passed to infants through breast milk, our understanding of immunity transfer via maternal leukocytes is still limited. To emulate the immunological interface between the mother and her infant while breast-feeding, we used murine pups fostered after birth onto MHC-matched and MHC-mismatched dams. Overall, data revealed that: 1) Survival of breast milk leukocytes in suckling infants is possible, but not significant after the foster-nursing ceases; 2) Most breast milk lymphocytes establish themselves in specific areas of the intestine termed Peyer's patches (PPs); 3) While most leukocytes in the milk bolus were myeloid cells, the majority of breast milk leukocytes localized to PPs were T lymphocytes, and cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) in particular; 4) These CTLs exhibit high levels of the gut-homing molecules α4β7 and CCR9, but a reduced expression of the systemic homing marker CD62L; 5) Under the same activation conditions, transferred CD8 T cells through breast milk have a superior capacity to produce potent cytolytic and inflammatory mediators when compared to those generated by the breastfed infant. It is therefore possible that maternal CTLs found in breast milk are directed to the PPs to compensate for the immature adaptive immune system of the infant in order to protect it against constant oral infectious risks during the postnatal phase.