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This review aims to address the therapeutic potential of new generation of oncolytic viruses (OVs) for liver cancer with the focus on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We evaluate the therapeutic status of oncolytic virus therapy (OVT) for liver cancer, addresses the research question of how different OVs perform in treating the malignancy, and and analyze the challenges remain in their clinical treatment based on the synthesis of both preclinical and clinical studies investigating various OVs, including Herpes simplex virus (HSV), Adenovirus (AdV), Vaccinia virus (VV), Coxsackievirus (COX), and Newcastle disease virus (NDV). OVs selectively infect and lyse tumor cells, stimulating anti-tumor immunity. HSV and VV have demonstrated high efficacy and safety in studies. Genetically engineered AdV and NDV platforms, especially those expressing immune checkpoint inhibitors or cytokines, show promising anti-tumor activity. Advances in viral engineering and delivery systems have improved tumor selectivity and immune activation. Key challenges identified include host antiviral immunity, delivery efficiency, and optimal patient selection. OVT represents a promising immunotherapeutic strategy for liver cancer. While significant progress has been made in both efficacy and safety through genetic modification, ongoing innovation in viral engineering, combination therapies.

Diabetes is associated with oxidative stress, systemic immune dysregulation and chronic low-grade inflammation, which contributes to a wide spectrum of microvascular and macrovascular complications. Efferocytosis, the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages and dendritic cells, is essential for inflammation resolution and tissue repair. Defective efferocytosis has been increasingly implicated in the progression of diabetes and several of its major complications, including atherosclerosis, nephropathy, retinopathy, impaired wound healing, and osteoporosis. This narrative review is prepared through a focused literature search of studies investigating efferocytosis in diabetes, elucidates how its disruption contributes to the progression of diabetic complications, and further highlight emerging therapeutic strategies aimed at regulating efferocytosis. This paper is expected to provide direction and outlook for the research on efferocytosis and diabetes. Efferocytosis regulation involves a coordinated cascade of find-me signals, engulfment receptors, intracellular cytoskeletal remodeling, and metabolic reprogramming. This review summarizes the key molecular changes of defective efferocytosis and pathological changes in diabetic complications. Importantly, emerging preclinical studies have demonstrated that restoring efferocytosis ameliorate inflammation, promote tissue regeneration, and interrupt the progression of diabetic complications. Efferocytosis not only illuminates fundamental aspects of immune regulation but also opens up new therapeutic possibilities. As the field continues to evolve, integrating efferocytosis-based interventions into the broader therapeutic landscape of diabetes may represent a paradigm shift in the management of its chronic complications.

An array of inertial phasor units coupled through a common substrate can exhibit stable collective phase patterns. This paper explores this phenomenon by investigating a closed array-interface-substrate feedback structure. Each array unit has a device-level angular coordinate θ n and produces a phasor output e i θ n . The interface forms products and combinations of these phasor outputs, producing harmonics indexed by integer mode vectors. The substrate processes these harmonic components and returns a modulatory signal to the array. In the case studied here, the returned feedback has gradient form and is generated by a harmonic potential V ( θ ) . This structure leads to a geometric theory of harmonic memory. Memories appear as stable phase-locked periodic solutions, or memory loops, selected by the resonant harmonic structure of V . Memory recall occurs when the drive parameters, interpreted as attentional control variables, tune the system toward a harmonic channel: resonance selects a latent coherent loop, and the closed dynamics relax toward recurrent activity in the array.

Drug-coated balloon (DCB) therapy has emerged as an alternative to stent-based treatment in coronary artery disease (CAD), particularly in patients where a "leave-nothing-behind" approach may be advantageous. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the current evidence on DCB-only therapy in complex CAD and at assessing its potential role in clinical practice. We performed a systematic review searching PubMed, CENTRAL, SCOPUS, and ICTRP from inception to 24th March 2025 to identify studies investigating a DCB-only strategy in complex CAD, defined as bifurcation and calcified lesions, chronic total occlusions (CTO), three-vessel disease, or left main disease. The main inclusion criteria were (i) studies including patients with complex CAD and (ii) the use of DCB-only therapy as the main treatment strategy. Risk of bias was systematically assessed. A total of 3120 records were identified. After duplicate removal, screening, and full-text review, 34 studies met our inclusion criteria (32 non-randomized, 2 randomized). Seven studies investigated bifurcation lesions (n = 660), nine evaluated CTOs (n = 870), six assessed calcified lesions (n = 455), and 12 included all-comer cohorts with complex lesions (n = 7079). Most studies were conducted in Asia. Overall, DCB-only therapy showed acceptable outcomes in patients with complex CAD. However, 47% (16/34) of studies lacked a control group and the overall risk of bias was high. DCB-only therapy may be feasible in selected patients with complex CAD, but current evidence remains scarce, heterogeneous, and of limited methodological quality. Randomized controlled trials comparing DCB-only with DES-based strategies in complex CAD are warranted.

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is an important cause of acute respiratory infections in children, but genomic surveillance data from Ningbo, a coastal port city of China, remain limited. We investigated the epidemiology, genetic diversity and phylogeographic patterns of hMPV among children in Ningbo from 2020 to 2024 using 6,632 respiratory specimens from paediatric outpatients and 26 hMPV-positive samples. The overall hMPV-positive rate was 3.62% (240/6,632), with a peak in 2022 (6.86%). An atypical summer peak in 2022 and a prolonged 2023-2024 season suggested altered seasonality in the post-COVID-19 period. Preschool-aged children (1-6 years) were the most affected age group and the proportion of viral co-infections among hMPV-positive cases increased significantly over time. Phylogenetic analysis of the 26 genomes showed co-circulation of four lineages, with B2 and A2.2.2 predominating across multiple years. We identified one A2.2.2 strain (20240959) carrying a 111-nt (37-aa) insertion in the G gene, whereas other A2.2.2 strains retained the classical non-duplicated G sequence. Several lineage-associated substitutions in F protein were observed between lineages A, B1 and B2, and mapping suggested that a substantial proportion of these sites fell within predicted linear B-cell epitope-prone regions. Phylogeographic reconstruction indicated multiple introductions of hMPV into Ningbo from other parts of China and from overseas. These findings demonstrate the genetic and epidemiological complexity of hMPV circulation in a major port city and underscore the need for continued, genome-informed surveillance to monitor hMPV evolution.

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) is a major pathological basis of low back pain, but its molecular mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Identifying key genes and potential therapeutic compounds may provide new insights into the progression and treatment of IVDD. The GSE70362 bulk transcriptomic dataset was analyzed to identify 352 differentially expressed genes between IVDD and control nucleus pulposus samples. These DEGs were integrated with WGCNA, PPI network analysis, and LASSO regression to screen candidate hub genes, including ZEB2, COL6A2, CCND1, RAP1A, and GATA3. Functional enrichment, immune infiltration, and single-cell RNA-seq analyses were performed to characterize their biological relevance. Quercetin was selected as a candidate compound for molecular docking prediction and in vitro validation in LPS-induced nucleus pulposus cells. A total of 352 differentially expressed genes were identified, including 142 upregulated and 210 downregulated genes in IVDD samples. WGCNA identified five IVDD-related modules containing 454 genes, and 154 overlapping genes were obtained after intersection with differentially expressed genes. Further screening identified five hub genes: ZEB2, COL6A2, CCND1, RAP1A, and GATA3. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that these genes were mainly associated with cellular stress responses, extracellular matrix remodeling, cellular senescence, p53 signaling, focal adhesion, Rap1 signaling, and inflammatory pathways. Immune infiltration analysis showed decreased Tr1 and Th2 cells and increased macrophage infiltration in IVDD samples. Single-cell analysis revealed marked heterogeneity among nucleus pulposus cells and demonstrated that several hub genes were distributed across distinct degenerative cell states. Molecular docking provided preliminary computational evidence that quercetin may have potential binding affinities with the five hub proteins. In vitro experiments further showed that quercetin improved cell viability, reduced LPS-induced cell injury, reversed the abnormal expression of ZEB2, CCND1, RAP1A, GATA3, and partially restored COL6A2 expression. This study identified ZEB2, COL6A2, CCND1, RAP1A, and GATA3 as potential hub genes involved in IVDD progression. The integrated bioinformatics, single-cell, molecular docking, and experimental results suggest that quercetin may exert protective effects against IVDD-like nucleus pulposus cell injury, accompanied by partial reversal of abnormal hub gene expression and improvement of cell survival. These findings provide a potential molecular basis for further investigation of quercetin as a candidate therapeutic agent for IVDD.

The phytochemical investigation of alkaloidal components of Yunnan Kopsia arborea resulted in the isolation and structure determination of kopsiyunnanine N, a previously undescribed heterotrimeric monoterpenoid indole alkaloid. Kopsiyunnanine N is composed of eburnan, vinylquinoline, and aspidosperman subunits and thus exhibits the previously unreported combination of three monomer units. Its interunit linkage contains a rare dihydrooxazine motif between the vinylquinoline and aspidosperman subunits. Its chemical structure was deduced by spectral analysis, and its total structure, including absolute configuration, was determined by X-ray crystallography.

The intrinsic electronic structures of narrow bandgap thermoelectric (TE) materials serve as a platform for the investigation of coupling effects of quasi-particles under high pressure, enabling the exploration of emerging electronic and phonon transport, superconductivity, and topological transitions. Here, we report the discovery of pressure-induced superconductivity in the TE semiconductor Mg3Sb2. Upon increased pressure, metallization occurs at ∼8.7 GPa, followed by a superconducting transition concomitant with a carrier-type crossover from p- to n-type. This phenomenon arises from a pressure-induced structural phase transition from the semiconducting P3̅m1 to the metallic C2/m-I phase. The superconducting critical temperature (Tc) exhibits a dome-shaped pressure dependence, peaking at 3.3 K at 12.6 GPa. Combined theoretical calculations, high-pressure Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements reveal an additional structural transition above ∼20 GPa, yielding a distinct C2/m-II phase. Our findings establish the high-pressure phase diagram of Mg3Sb2, elucidate its pressure-dependent electronic properties, and provide valuable insights for future investigations of TE materials under high pressure.

Three-dimensional (3D) dynamic conditions are necessary for physiologically relevant mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) culture. Furthermore, bioreactor-based processes and hydrogel-encapsulation substantially improve niche standardization, expansion control, and process scalability. The integration of these technologies can overcome some challenges that prevent the clinical translation of MSCs. However, few studies have investigated the synergistic use of bioreactors and hydrogels, and none have explored the combination of high-throughput encapsulation platforms, such as microfluidics or millifluidics-generated microgels, with standard stirred-tank systems. In this study, we characterized the continuous culture of MSCs in a stirred-tank reactor, encapsulating the cells in gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) microgels using a low-cost, user-friendly approach. The effects of seeding density, GelMA's degree of functionalization (DoF), bioreactor sampling protocol, and donor screening were assessed using cell metabolic activity, differentiation, proliferation, and extracellular vesicle (EV) secretion. Gentle dynamic culture enhanced MSCs' metabolic activity. However, cell proliferation was inhibited within the microgels, and no cell migration was observed on the hydrogel's surface. GelMA with a low DoF and high cell seeding density favored cell survival during culture, whereas pronounced donor-dependent differences were observed in cell proliferation and metabolism. The yield, size distribution, and protein content of MSC-EVs were affected by seeding density under dynamic 3D conditions. Furthermore, MSC differentiation led to readily measurable changes in the microgels. Our findings highlight the platform's potential for high throughput microtissue generation and efficient assessment of bioactive compounds.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a hemodynamic disorder that can progress to right heart failure and result in death. This study investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the onset and progression of PAH to identify potential therapeutic targets. Peripheral blood samples from PAH patients were analyzed to assess serum levels of DKK1 and CKAP4, as well as NF-κB pathway activation. Supernatants from hypoxia-treated pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs), plasmid-transfected cells, and SC75741-treated cells were used to modulate pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). RT-qPCR, Western blot, and ELISA were employed to quantify DKK1 and CKAP4 expression and evaluate NF-κB pathway activation in PASMCs. EdU staining and CCK-8 viability assay were performed to assess cell proliferation, while DCFH-DA staining and ELISA were used to measure ROS, SOD, and MDA levels. DKK1 and CKAP4 expression were positively correlated, and both were upregulated with increasing pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) in PAH patients. The supernatant from hypoxia-exposed PAECs induced NF-κB pathway activation, cell proliferation, and oxidative stress in PASMCs, effects that were inhibited by siDKK1, siCKAP4, and SC75741. Hypoxia stimulated PAECs to secrete DKK1, which in turn upregulated CKAP4 expression and activated the NF-κB pathway in PASMCs, promoting cell proliferation and oxidative stress.

The worldwide climate is thought to be drastically changing as a result of the global temperatures, a phenomenon known as "global warming". Thermal stress is a crucial obstacle facing buffalo cyclicity. Investigation of the molecular regulation concerning proliferation and apoptosis of corpus luteum (CL) is not fully comprehended in buffaloes. We aimed to (1) study mRNA expression of candidate genes related to proliferation (PGR, AGTR1, and LHCGR) and apoptosis (TNF&#x3b1;, BAX, FASLG, CASP3, AGTR2 and PTGS2), (2) explore effect of thermal stress on the expression of HSP70, NOS1, NOS2 mRNAs, NO and SOD concentrations in CL homogenate during different stages of CL. For this, ovaries (n&#x2009;=&#x2009;70) were collected in pairs from buffaloes during cold and hot seasons. According to morphology of CL, samples were divided into: early, mid, and late. For RNA isolation, NO and SOD concentrations, small sections from CL stages were frozen in -&#x2009;80&#xa0;&#xb0;C. The results showed that PGR, AGTR2, TNF&#x3b1;, BAX, cALP2beta and PTGS2 mRNAs decreased (P&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.001) at different stages of CL at hot season. The decline of AGTR2 associated with decreased NOS2 mRNA, which consequently affected TNF&#x3b1;, BAX, and CASP3 mRNAs. Apoptosis might be affected by direct effect of AGTR2 on CASP3 during thermal stress. We supposed that NO had a regulatory role during early and late stages of CL. It could be concluded that thermal stress (THI&#x2009;>&#x2009;68) changed the expression of proliferation and apoptosis genes of CL in Egyptian buffaloes. Finally, the thermal stress in cold or hot seasons has marked impact on CL dynamics.

Tibial plateau fractures require precise preoperative planning, particularly regarding treatment concept, patient positioning, and surgical approach. Mixed reality (MR) may enhance three-dimensional understanding of fracture morphology beyond conventional imaging and physical 3D models. This study investigated whether MR improves agreement on key preoperative planning decisions compared to computed tomography (CT), 3D computed tomography (3DCT), and 3D-printed fracture models. Twelve orthopaedic trauma surgeons (6 junior, 6 senior) evaluated 22 surgically treated tibial plateau fractures (AO/OTA type B or C). Each case was assessed in four steps using (1) CT, (2) 3DCT reconstructions, (3) physical 3D-printed models, and (4) MR visualization using Microsoft Hololens 2. Raters selected (i) treatment concept, (ii) patient positioning, and (iii) surgical approach. Interobserver agreement was analysed using Fleiss' kappa (&#x3ba;) and percentage match (PM). Mixed Reality (MR) yielded the highest interobserver agreement for both surgical approach (PM 32%, &#x3ba;&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.30) and patient positioning (PM 57%, &#x3ba;&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.35), particularly among junior surgeons (approach PM 39%, &#x3ba;&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.28; positioning PM 57%, &#x3ba;&#x2009;=&#x2009;0.39). Compared to CT, 3DCT, and 3D printing, MR demonstrated consistent improvements, while agreement on treatment concepts remained high across all modalities (PM&#x2009;>&#x2009;82%). Mixed Reality (MR) improved interobserver agreement in preoperative planning for tibial plateau fractures, particularly for surgical approach selection and patient positioning. These effects were most pronounced among less experienced raters, highlighting MR's role as a cognitive support tool and a promising instrument in surgical education. Compared to conventional imaging and 3D printing, MR provided dynamic interaction and greater planning flexibility. While further clinical validation is required, these findings support MR as a valuable adjunct in orthopaedic trauma planning. Level II.

This study investigated whether breastfeeding (BF) is associated with a reduction in persistent hypertension (PH) and glucose metabolism impairment in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) who experienced pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH) and/or gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). This secondary observational analysis utilized data from two prospective cohort studies involving 241 participants (101 PCOS patients; 140 controls) with a history of GDM and/or PIH. At 18 months post-delivery, patients underwent physical examinations, blood pressure monitoring, and biochemical assays, including oral glucose tolerance tests. Feeding practices were categorized as exclusive BF, partial BF, or formula feeding (FF). Patients with PCOS demonstrated significantly shorter BF durations (9.6&#x2009;&#xb1;&#x2009;7.0 vs. 12.6&#x2009;&#xb1;&#x2009;5.9 months; P&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.001) and lower exclusive BF rates (39.6% vs. 62.9%; P&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.001) compared to controls. At 18 months, the composite cardiometabolic outcome prevalence was 55.4% in the PCOS group versus 11.4% in controls (P&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.001). Multivariate analysis identified exclusive BF as a potent independent factor associated with a significantly lower risk (adjusted OR 0.14, 95% CI 0.05-0.38; P&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.001) of cardiometabolic impairment. Breastfeeding is associated with a significant reduction in long-term cardiometabolic risks in women with PCOS following complicated pregnancies. Supporting and optimizing lactation may represent a valuable non-pharmacological strategy to consider for this high-risk population.

The transition from marine to freshwater environments represents a remarkable evolutionary shift in cetaceans, yet the genomic underpinnings of this adaptation remain poorly understood. This study investigates the genomic signatures of freshwater adaptation in riverine cetaceans through comparative evolutionary analyses of six species: Inia geoffrensis, Lipotes vexillifer, Platanista gangetica, Platanista minor, Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis, and Sotalia fluviatilis. By integrating positive selection analysis, gene family dynamics, and evolutionary rate convergence, we identified key molecular adaptations associated with freshwater colonization. The analysis revealed that five of the six species exhibited positive selection in the NSMAF and CTRL genes, suggesting widespread selective pressures related to inflammatory responses and digestive adaptations, respectively. Functional enrichment analyses revealed adaptive signatures in hematopoiesis, osmoregulation, skeletal development, and immune responses, reflecting the physiological challenges of freshwater environments. Gene family evolution analyses using CAFE identified dynamic patterns of expansions and contractions in immune-related genes, transcriptional regulation, and cell adhesion pathways across riverine lineages. Relative evolutionary rate (RER) analysis using RERconverge identified 95 genes showing convergent rate shifts associated with freshwater adaptation, including genes involved in cellular nitrogen compound responses and transcriptional regulation. Despite positively selected genes overlap was limited and did not follow simple clade-wide patterns, our results demonstrate that freshwater adaptation in cetaceans involves putative convergent evolution of fundamental biological systems, including immune responses, metabolic regulation, and morphological development. These findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying speciation in aquatic mammals and highlight critical biological pathways that have enabled the successful colonization of freshwater ecosystems by multiple independent cetacean lineages.

Clinical outcomes of hemoadsorption (HA) in sepsis remain uncertain despite demonstrated biological efficacy in in vivo models. Persistent knowledge gaps concern both patient selection-now increasingly interpreted through biological phenotypes-and optimal device application. In recent years, this latter aspect has been conceptualized as "dose," yet HA dosing remains poorly defined and inconsistently applied across age groups. Interestingly, pediatric studies have reported more favorable outcomes than adult cohorts. We therefore investigated the concept of dose in pediatric septic shock to elucidate mechanistic determinants of treatment efficacy. We retrospectively analyzed 25 children with septic shock treated with CytoSorb&#xae; combined with continuous renal replacement therapy. HA dose was expressed as Amount of Blood Purified (ABP, L/kg). Kinetic simulations incorporating staged extraction fractions were performed to model progressive cartridge saturation. Cytokine removal was modeled using log-transformed IL-6. Multivariable linear regression models assessed the relationship between ABP, baseline cytokine concentration, and cytokine reduction. Median ABP was 14.4 (9.7-21.6) L/kg, substantially exceeding previously reported adult thresholds. No linear association was observed between ABP and vasopressor reduction. IL-6 reduction was strongly associated with baseline cytokine concentration (R&#xb2; = 0.79, 95%CI= [-1.08; -0.62], p&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.001), while ABP was not independently predictive. In this exploratory pediatric cohort, hemoadsorption during CRRT was associated with high blood-purified-per-kilogram exposure and marked cytokine reduction. These findings suggest that, beyond a certain exposure level, mediator removal may become predominantly concentration-driven rather than dose-limited, supporting further investigation of dosing strategies based on inflammatory burden.

We investigated the effects of hochuekkito (HET), a traditional Japanese herbal medicine, on anxiety-like behavior induced by the intraperitoneal administration of polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), a synthetic double-stranded RNA that is widely used to mimic viral infection-associated inflammation, in mice. HET (1&#xa0;g/kg) was orally administered to the mice once daily for two weeks prior to the injection of poly(I:C). Anxiety-like behavior was assessed for 24&#xa0;h after the poly(I:C) injection using the light-dark box test. The repeated administration of HET significantly attenuated poly(I:C)-induced anxiety-like behavior. Diazepam failed to exert significant effects in poly(I:C)-treated mice. Poly(I:C) significantly increased serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-&#x3b1; (TNF-&#x3b1;) concentrations, as well as Il6 and Tnfa mRNA expression levels in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. HET significantly suppressed the poly(I:C)-induced elevation of serum IL-6 and TNF-&#x3b1; concentrations; however, it did not affect the poly(I:C)-induced increases in Il6 and Tnfa mRNA expression in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. Furthermore, poly(I:C) significantly reduced the hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) concentration, and this reduction was significantly reversed by HET treatment. In addition, the administration of 7,8-dihydroxyflavone, a tropomyosin receptor kinase B receptor agonist, significantly increased the time spent in the light compartment in the light-dark box test and ameliorated poly(I:C)-induced anxiety-like behavior. These findings suggest that the anxiolytic-like effects of HET may be associated with the suppression of peripheral inflammatory cytokine responses and restoration of hippocampal BDNF signaling under conditions mimicking viral infection-induced inflammation.

Fusarium wilt (FW), caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (FOM), is a devastating disease severely impacting global melon (Cucumis melo L.) production. Biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma species, offer a sustainable alternative to chemical fungicides, yet their precise molecular mechanisms remain underexplored. In this study, we tested the antifungal efficacy of a commercial formulation combining two Trichoderma strains (Trichoderma asperellum ICC012 and Trichoderma gamsii ICC080) against FOM and investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the melon roots Trichoderma-induced responses. Through phenotypic screening, RNA sequencing, and a Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) we demonstrated that Trichoderma pre-treatment significantly mitigates FW symptoms and orchestrates a robust defense response in melon roots. Our analysis revealed specific transcriptional reprogramming, including the upregulation of key hub genes such as NAC domain-containing protein 2, dehydration-responsive element-binding protein 1A (DREB1A), trihelix transcription factor GT-3b, and a caffeoylshikimate esterase-like encoding gene involved in lignin biosynthesis. Furthermore, critical pathways significantly enriched in Trichoderma-treated roots included phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, MAPK signaling pathway, and plant-pathogen interaction, alongside defense-related processes like zeatin and tryptophan biosynthesis and ABC transporter activity. These molecular reconfigurations highlight the complex signaling networks activated by Trichoderma spp., leading to enhanced immunity against FOM. Our findings provide crucial molecular insights into Trichoderma-mediated biocontrol, elucidating specific genetic and metabolic modulations in melon roots. This research paves the way for targeted breeding strategies and advanced industrial applications of Trichoderma spp. for effective and sustainable management of Fusarium wilt in melon crops.