Dielectric energy storage is critical for technologies demanding ultrafast discharging and pulse power, and preventing electric failure is paramount to the design and engineering of dielectric materials. Under high voltages current traverses the dielectric leading to electric breakdown, which is the primary failure mode of dielectrics. While intrinsic breakdown strength in perfect dielectrics can be predicted from quantum mechanics, failures in dielectric materials often occur under an electric field well below their intrinsic theoretical strengths, and the mechanism is still poorly understood. Here we show that electric breakdown of dielectric polymers is strongly correlated to their mechanical toughness. We reveal through in situ experiments that breakdown of polymers proceeds through nucleation and growth of cracking channels, suggesting a close connection between electric and mechanical failures. We demonstrate that the breakdown strength of polymers can be modulated by their tensile toughness, and there is a universal relationship between electric toughness and mechanical toughness. As a result, the breakdown strength for a wide range of polymers with mechanical and dielectric properties spanning two orders of magnitude can be reliably predicted, uncovering a dominant electromechanical breakdown mode that unifies mechanical and electric failures. Toughening strategies in enhancing dielectric strength can therefore be explored.
2D ferroelectrics integrate electrically tunable polarization dynamics with anisotropic light-matter interaction, providing a unified platform for co-localized sensing and in-memory computing. However, most neuromorphic visual systems still rely on heterogeneous components that exploit only a single material functionality at a time, thereby increasing system complexity and fabrication costs. Here, we demonstrate a device-algorithm co-design for neuromorphic visual recognition based on multifunctional NbOBr2. By leveraging its anisotropic broadband photoresponse, robust in-plane ferroelectricity, and integration with multilayer graphene, we realize three bio-inspired core functions: anisotropic photoelectric synaptic preprocessing for retina-like encoding, ferroelectric synaptic weight modulation for in-memory weighted operations, and leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) neuronal emulation for spike generation. With BDD100K driving scenes converted to drivable maps and encoded into two orthogonal polarization channels (c- and b-axis; 0°/90°), a device-aware spiking neural network achieves a recognition accuracy of up to 94.2%, outperforming a standard SNN baseline (91.8%). These results illustrate how the intrinsic multifunctionality of a 2D ferroelectric can be harnessed to create compact, biologically plausible perception-computation hardware for high-performance neuromorphic vision.
Electrical brain stimulation has been used to treat epilepsy with therapeutic success, but without complete understanding of its cellular mechanisms of seizure suppression. Using acute human brain slices obtained from pharmaco-resistant epilepsy patients, we delivered high-frequency, high-intensity extracellular electrical stimulation while recording from neocortical layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons (PNs), fast-spiking interneurons (FSINs), and non-fast-spiking interneurons (nFSINs). Electrical stimulation led to an increasingly selective activation of FSINs at higher stimulation frequencies, which consistently fired with high fidelity throughout prolonged stimulation periods while both PNs and nFSINs were suppressed rapidly. In addition, stimulation caused a long-term rebalancing of synaptic weights through selective and differential depression of synaptic inputs, resulting in an approximately twofold increase in the normalized excitatory-to-inhibitory postsynaptic conductance at FSINs while not affecting PNs, thereby providing support for FSIN activation toward increased inhibitory tone and network stabilization. These stimulation-induced effects were accompanied by only minimal changes in neuronal intrinsic excitability.
Graphene can support spin transport over long distances, yet achieving large electrical spin signals remains challenging because spin injection and detection are highly sensitive to disorder at tunnel-barrier interfaces. Here we demonstrate that suppressing such interfacial disorder enables high-fidelity spin injection and detection in graphene. We fabricate van der Waals graphene spin valves by exfoliating and assembling constituent two-dimensional crystals inside an inert glovebox, combined with contamination-suppressing lamination and thorough post-transfer cleaning to realize atomically flat hexagonal boron nitride tunnel barriers. Our four-terminal nonlocal devices exhibit exceptionally large spin polarizations approaching 90 percent and nonlocal spin signals up to 1.6 kΩ. The high tunnel-barrier quality enables robust spin detection down to nanoampere excitation currents and gate-tunable magnetoresistance exceeding 80 percent. Spin precession measurements reveal Elliott-Yafet-type relaxation with nearly isotropic spin dynamics. These results establish interface-controlled van der Waals fabrication as an effective route to high-signal spin transport in graphene.
Local treatment options for progressive lung cancer or metastases located in the central or middle thirds of the lungs are limited, especially if progression occurs after radiation. In these patients, local thermal ablative therapies are fraught with complications. We investigated the safety and efficacy of local control in progressive lung and metastatic cancer by bronchoscopic pulsed electric field (PEF) ablation. We performed an analysis of prospectively collected data of all the patients with lung and metastatic cancer to the lungs treated by bronchoscopic PEF ablation at our institution between October 2024 and April 2025. Seven lesions in six consecutive patients were treated by PEF ablation using robotic bronchoscopy with three-dimensional imaging. There were three patients with NSCLC, and three with colorectal cancer, urothelial cancer, and thyroid cancer. All patients had progressed on standard oncologic therapies, and five had received radiation to the lesions. The median tumor size was 2.1 cm (range, 1.1-4 cm), and all were located in the central or middle-thirds of the lungs. At the median follow-up of 9.7 (interquartile range, 5.4-10.1) months, four (57.1%) lesions increased in size, two (28.5%) decreased, and one (14.3%) resolved. The decreased size or resolution of lesions was seen in the three patients with NSCLC. No direct complications due to PEF were encountered, but one patient required prolonged mechanical ventilation related to anesthesia. In patients with lung cancer or lung metastases, bronchoscopic PEF ablation is safe and associated with mixed local control.
The recovery of voluntary movement after complete spinal cord injury (SCI) remains a formidable clinical challenge, as it necessitates both the reconstruction of disrupted spinal cord neural pathways and the restoration of the excitatory/inhibitory balance in sensorimotor neural circuits. To tackle this dual challenge, we transplanted a biomimetic spinal cord tissueoid (SCToid) into the injury cavity to structurally reestablish neural pathways, while concurrently applying tail nerve electrical stimulation (TNES) to functionally reactivate silent sensorimotor neural circuits. The results showed that combined SCToid transplantation and TNES promoted the regeneration of corticospinal tract and sensory afferent axons, which formed functional synapses with SCToid neurons. Moreover, monosynaptic tracer assays revealed direct innervation of lumbar spinal cord central pattern generator (CPG) interneurons by SCToid neurons; some CPG interneurons and sensory afferent axons also exhibited synaptic connectivity with motor neurons. Compared with the control group, transplantation of SCToids combined with TNES increased the ratio of excitatory/inhibitory synaptic terminals on the soma surfaces of CPG interneurons and motor neurons toward the pattern observed in normal spinal cords. This change ultimately enhanced the excitability of sensorimotor neural circuits and restored weight-bearing hindlimb walking. Collectively, these findings establish that reconstructing neural pathways and restoring the excitatory/inhibitory balance within CPG-regulated sensorimotor neural circuits are both necessary and sufficient to enable voluntary movement recovery. This synergistic mechanism establishes a robust theoretical framework for integrating biological and physical therapeutic strategies in SCI treatment, with specific implications for the combined application of transplantable engineered organoids and neurostimulation-based rehabilitation approaches.
A novel polymer electrolyte system based onPoly(vinylidene-co-hexaflouropropylene) (PVdF-HFP), sodium iodide (NaI), and Tributyle Methyl Phosphonium Iodide (TMPI) ionic liquid has been successfully synthesized via the solution casting technique. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) indicated enhanced ion transport conductivity of 9.10 × 10- 4 S/cm, by doping ionic liquid (TMPI) and showed well correlation with dielectric data. The addition of TMPI improves the flexibility of the polymer matrix and helps in better salt dissociation, which increases ion movement in the electrolyte. It also enhances the amorphous nature of the system, leading to improved performance. The ionic transference number (tion) measurements suggested predominantly ionic conduction while potential sweep voltammetry (LSV) established a wide electrochemical stability window of 4.39 V. Structural analysis was done using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) while Dielectric data obey the same pattern as we observed in conductivity measurement. Morphological insights using polarized optical microscopy (POM) shows reduced crystallinity and enhanced amorphousness which is well assisted quantitatively by our differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurement. Highest conducting polymer electrolyte is used for dual energy application, namely electrical double layer supercapacitor (EDLC) and dye sensitized solar cells (DSSC). A flexible EDLC was fabricate, which shows good electrochemical performance, while dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC) shows efficiency of 2.80% at 1 sun condition.
This article presents a compact dual-band microstrip bandpass filter, realized through coupling-matrix synthesis and experimentally validated as a microwave sensor for precise, direct-contact detection of water contamination in petroleum fluids. The asymmetric layout integrates a rectangular resonator with asymmetrically coupled open-ended stubs for the lower passband (centered at 3.48 GHz) and a pair of gear-shaped resonators with interlocking peripheral teeth for the upper passband (centered at 12.05 GHz), achieving a footprint of 13.2 mm × 9.9 mm with highly selective responses. Direct-contact measurements on gasoline, crude oil, and diesel mixtures, prepared across the full 0-100% water range in 5% volumetric steps, exhibit consistent, monotonic downward resonance shifts driven by the large dielectric contrast between hydrocarbons and water. The sensor demonstrates high sensitivity, with an average value of approximately 524 MHz/εr across both passbands, enabling excellent resolution even in low-contamination regimes. To convert the dual-band frequency displacements into accurate water-content estimates, a Group Method of Data Handling (GMDH) neural network is employed, which autonomously constructs interpretable polynomial models tailored to each fuel. The approach delivers outstanding test-set performance with RMSEs of 0.78% (gasoline), 0.92% (crude oil), and 0.85% (diesel), MAEs of 0.61%, 0.74%, and 0.68%, respectively, and strong correlation with measurements (R² = 0.992). Over 85% of absolute errors fall within ± 1.2% in a near-symmetric distribution, confirming the method's robustness and its broader potential for multiphase dielectric sensing in industrial and environmental applications.
Pulmonary embolism (PE) remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in critical care, yet traditional diagnostic methods face limitations, especially in critically ill patients. This study introduces a novel frequency-domain band-pass filtering enhanced electrical impedance tomography (EIT) pulsation method for rapid, non-invasive PE diagnosis and risk stratification. In a two-center retrospective study, 106 participants (53 PE patients, 53 healthy controls) were enrolled. A 16-electrode EIT system recorded pulmonary blood flow pulsation signals, and a heart rate-adaptive band-pass filter with its lower cutoff frequency set slightly below the estimated heart rate was applied to extract perfusion-related pulsatility while separating it from ventilation-related low-frequency components. Key parameters (Matching Index (MI), Dead space index (DI), Shunt Index (SI), Electrical Impedance VQ ratio(EIVQ)) were analyzed for PE diagnosis and risk stratification. Compared with healthy controls, PE patients had significantly lower MI (P < 0.001) and higher DI (P < 0.001) and SI (P = 0.005). For risk stratification, intermediate-high-risk PE patients showed lower MI and higher DI than lower-risk patients, with the strongest differences versus low-risk patients (both adjusted P < 0.001).Among the EIT-derived parameters, the combined MI + DI+SI model achieved the highest AUC (0.820, 95% CI: 0.741-0.899), although the improvement over MI alone was marginal; it outperformed DI and SI. EIVQ showed no significant discriminative value. The enhanced EIT pulsatility method shows promise for non-invasive bedside assessment of PE-related perfusion abnormalities. MI, DI, and SI differentiated PE patients from healthy controls, while MI and DI were associated with risk stratification. These findings support the diagnostic and risk-stratification potential of EIT-derived pulsatility parameters and warrant further validation in consecutive patients with suspected PE.
This study develops an integrated techno-economic-environmental optimization framework for a renewable poly-generation hub designed to supply electricity, green hydrogen, oxygen, and desalinated water under dynamic market conditions. The system combines photovoltaic panels, a biogas generator, an electrolyzer, hydrogen storage, a fuel cell, reverse osmosis desalination, and grid exchange within a revenue-oriented energy management strategy that directs surplus electricity to the most profitable use. The methodology links component-level modeling, operational dispatch, NSGA-II based multi-objective optimization, and fuzzy decision-making to determine a compromise optimal design. Applied to Jubail, Saudi Arabia, the optimized configuration achieves zero loss of power supply probability, a renewable fraction of 74.84%, a system efficiency of 60.15%, and complete utilization of excess energy. Annual outputs reach 178,304.59 kg/year of hydrogen, 1,426.44 tons/year of oxygen, and 105,603.13 m3/year of freshwater. Economically, the system delivers a net present cost of $12.15 million, a levelized electricity cost of $0.0614/kWh, a hydrogen cost of $2.53/kg, and a water cost of $0.84/m3. Low life-cycle emissions and employment benefits further demonstrate its practical value for industrial decarbonization and integrated resource management under market-responsive operating conditions.
We report the design, fabrication, and characterization of a stretchable composite material with mechanically tunable optical properties in the thermal infrared spectral range. The device consists of an elastomeric substrate of Styrene-Ethylene-Butylene-Styrene (SEBS) patterned at the micro‑scale coated with an optically active gold layer whose morphology and optical response evolve under mechanical deformation. Stretching or compressing the composite modifies the geometry of both the surface pattern and the active layer, leading to reversible changes in transmittance and reflectance in the infrared range. The resulting composite operates without external electrical power, relying exclusively on mechanical actuation. A comparison between two active layer thicknesses (30 and 60 nm) on micropatterned SEBS elastomer reveals distinct optical behaviors. The 30 nm layer exhibits a transmission increase from 10% to 43% (+ 33%) under 100% strain, making it suitable for transmission-based IR modulation. In contrast, the 60 nm layer exhibits a reflectance decrease from 55% to 15% (-40%), making it suitable for reflectance-based thermal camouflage. We demonstrate its performance as a flexible strain sensor and infrared modulator and assess its stability over 1000 cycles of repeated deformation. The optical response remains stable despite nanoscale crack formation in the metal layer, highlighting the decoupling between electrical and optical behavior. These results define a simple design strategy in which metal thickness governs the dominant modulation mode (transmission vs. reflectance), providing a versatile platform for passive, mechanically driven infrared devices Part of this work has previously been disclosed in a patent (ES 2 950 877 A1), highlighting its technological relevance.
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as a uniquely versatile platform for nonlinear optical (NLO) applications, combining the large hyperpolarizabilities of organic chromophores with the chemical robustness and structural programmability of crystalline porous materials. Although many reviews have covered various facets of MOF-NLO chemistry, no review has brought together structural design principles, family-to-family quantitative performance comparisons, and DFT-based hyperpolarizability evaluations within a unified critical framework. This review of NLO properties of MOFs is considered through three interconnected facets: the principles of structural design to achieve non-centrosymmetric, high-second and third-order response structures; computational tools based on density functional theory (DFT) to predict and rationalize the electronic and optical properties of MOFs; and the measurement tools such as Z-scan and two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF). The particular focus is on triphenylamine (TPA)-based MOFs, with their multi-branched donor-π-acceptor structure and robust intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) features rendering them the most promising third-order NLO materials. They provide externally tunable third-order responses (β = 10-3 to 10-4 cm W-1) via electric-field modulation, guest loading, and interpenetration engineering. Moreover, the MOF families lanthanide MOFs, bimetallic Zn/Cu systems, Ti-based MIL-125, Zr-based UiO-66, Cu-HHTP, bismuth-organic frameworks, zeolitic imidazolate frameworks, and porphyrin-based 2D frameworks are critically considered based on their NLO activity. Second-order NLO activity (d 33 ≈ 19.86 pm V-1, ∼12× KDP) is maximized using bimetallic Zn/Cu MOFs and electrically tunable Cu-HHTP films, which represent the state-of-the-art for actuatable switched third-order polymeric NLO materials. The DFT methods, such as hybrid functionals, dispersion-corrected methods and machine learning-accelerated screening emerging methods, are evaluated based on their ability to quantitatively predict band gaps, charge-transfer energies, and hyperpolarizability tensors. High-priority research frontiers include frequency-dependent NLO computations, chiral MOF engineering for SHG, guest@MOF switching, and 2D nanosheet architectures. This review provides not only a practical design guide but also a significant computational roadmap for emerging MOF-based photonic technologies such as optical data storage, ultra-fast all-optical switching, frequency-conversion lasers, and non-invasive bio-imaging.
Wearable electrophysiological monitoring based on hydrogel electrodes is pivotal for decoding the body's "electrical language", yet fundamentally hampered by the unstable mechano-electrical interface between flexible electrodes and the skin caused by dehydration and poor breathability. Here, we demonstrate a symbiotic interface between an embedded-interfacial enhanced breathable conductive hydrogel network (BCHN) and skin for high-fidelity long-term electrophysiological monitoring. By embedding sodium chloride-containing polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel into an oxidized electrospun 3D porous polylactic acid skeleton, a BCHN with embedded enhanced interface featuring dense ion transport pathways and multiple water molecule-adsorbing sites is constructed. Upon application, the breathable (1.85 kg·m⁻²·day⁻¹, ~3× skin perspiration) flexible conductive hydrogel network with bending stiffness of ~10-10 N·m² seamlessly conforms to the microscopic landscape of the skin, forming a symbiotic BCHN-skin interface, which allows BCHN to "breathe" in harmony with the skin to preserve stable hydration and conductivity by dynamically balancing sweat capture, permeation, and evaporation, evidenced by a sustained 55 Ω impedance even at 20%RH. Integrated into a wearable monitoring system, the BCHN electrodes maintain high-quality signals (SNR > 25 dB) for over 30 days, thereby permitting the quantitative assessment and early warning of driver fatigue through long-term electroencephalography analysis.
This case report is aimed at evaluate the feasibility of regenerative endodontic therapy (RET) using autologous dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) for previously endodontically treated, nonvital mature teeth with apical periodontitis and root perforation. RET may offer an alternative to conventional retreatment for mature teeth with persistent apical periodontitis. Two patients aged 22 and 28 years were referred for treatment of maxillary anterior teeth. After mechanical enlargement and disinfection, a cervical root perforation in Case 1 was sealed with mineral trioxide aggregate. Autologous DPSCs isolated from extracted third molars were transplanted with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and atelocollagen into the disinfected root canals in both cases and additionally into the apical perforation site in Case 2. The tooth in Case 1 showed a positive response to electric pulp testing at 4 weeks after transplantation, whereas the tooth in Case 2 first showed positive responses to both electric pulp and cold testing at 12 weeks. Dental radiography and cone-beam computed tomography demonstrated mineralized tissue formation in the apical part of the root canal and remission of the periapical lesions after 48 weeks. In Case 2, marked narrowing of the perforation site was also observed. These clinical and radiographic changes were further enhanced during follow-up, reaching 96 weeks after transplantation. No local or systemic adverse events were observed in either patient throughout the observation period. In these two cases, RET using autologous DPSCs was feasible and safe, and was associated with favorable clinical and radiographic outcomes for up to 96 weeks. Because histological confirmation was not obtained and only two cases were included, these findings should be interpreted as preliminary evidence of feasibility rather than as proof of pulp-dentin complex regeneration and require validation in larger, controlled studies.
Sleep dysfunction is common after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and can be difficult to manage due to medication side effects and complex neuropsychiatric comorbidities. Noninvasive electrical vestibular system stimulation (VSS) is an emerging neuromodulation therapy that has demonstrated benefit for primary chronic insomnia in adults without known brain injury, but has not been described for chronic insomnia in individuals with TBI. We present a retrospective case series of 5 adult veterans with chronic TBI and moderate-to-severe insomnia (Insomnia Severity Index [ISI] ≥15) who were treated with nightly home VSS. All patients reported subjective improvement in sleep at 3 to 8 week follow-up. ISI score decreased from 25.0 ± 2.5 (mean ± SD) at baseline to 7.2 ± 4.7 at follow-up, representing a reduction of 17.8 ± 6.6 points. Each patient demonstrated a clinically meaningful reduction in ISI (≥6-point reduction). Some individuals reported reductions in nightmares and improvements in daytime alertness. In this case series, VSS use was associated with clinically meaningful reductions in chronic insomnia severity in veterans with chronic TBI.
Stretchable organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) are ideal candidates for wearable technologies, human-machine interfaces, soft robots and implantable devices, but they suffer from mechanical stress concentration, microcracks, and interfacial damage under large geometric variation, which leads to severe performance degradation. To transcend this limitation, we propose an O2 plasma-assisted barrier regulation strategy for the fabrication of the organic source-gated transistor (OSGT). The Schottky barrier dominated transport mode of OSGTs substantially reduces the sensitivity of electrical performance to mechanical strain, thereby enhancing the strain limit of stretchable OFETs under geometric variations. The stretchable OSGTs could maintain a high on/off ratio (106) at 300% strain and the performance has no obvious attenuation. This architectural strategy shifts the focus from material engineering to device design, offering broader prospects for the development of stretchable electronic devices requiring large deformations.
Space charges affect the discharge process in an enclosed space of an electrical device. Due to the limitations of the measurement technique, it is difficult to study charge accumulation and its effect on discharges. In this paper, a characterization of the space charges and the charge-caused discharge characteristics via electrostatic induction is proposed. For a 10 mm needle-plate model, numerical relations between the induced voltage and the space charge is derived, enabling the calculation of real-time space charge quantities. Then the characteristic space charge parameters are extracted and verified to be able to represent the accumulation of space charge and discharge characteristics. Variations of the parameters at different applied voltages are also investigated. Over a single AC voltage cycle, the equivalent charge quantity Q and the charge change rate dQ can represent pulse characteristics such as amplitude and repetition rate. With the phase φi and φt where the dQ curve undergoes significantly, the charge effect during the initial and final discharge can be analyzed. At different DC and AC-DC superimposed voltages, the discharge stages are distinguished based on the characteristic charge parameter versus applied voltage curve, and charge effect at different applied voltages are concluded according to φi and φt.
Gitelman syndrome is an autosomal recessive salt-wasting tubulopathy characterized by hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, hypomagnesaemia and hypocalciuria. It may present in adulthood with nonspecific symptoms including cramps, fatigue and musculoskeletal complaints. We report the case of a 34-year-old male electrical engineer with a three-year history of low back pain, neck and shoulder pain, and radiculopathy. His spinal history is briefly noted as contextual. He was found to have persistent hypokalemia (serum K⁺ ~2.9-3.4 mmol/L), hypomagnesaemia (serum Mg²⁺ ~0.97-1.16 mmol/L), metabolic alkalosis (serum HCO₃⁻ ~28-31 mmol/L, arterial blood gas pH ~7.49) and low urinary fractional excretion of calcium (FECa ~0.002). Work-up excluded other causes of potassium and magnesium wasting; normal blood pressure was noted. A clinical diagnosis of Gitelman syndrome was made. Management included counselling regarding a high-sodium diet together with potassium-rich and magnesium-rich foods, supplementation of potassium and magnesium, and planned initiation of eplerenone and sodium chloride supplementation. We discuss the pathophysiology of Gitelman syndrome, its typical biochemical profile, differential diagnosis (including Bartter syndrome), the relevance of the patient's musculoskeletal pain in the setting of electrolyte imbalance, and therapeutic considerations. This case underscores the importance of considering Gitelman syndrome in adults presenting with persistent hypokalemia, hypomagnesaemia and metabolic alkalosis, even when musculoskeletal symptoms dominate the presentation. Early recognition allows targeted therapy, potentially improving quality of life.
Exoskeleton robots have become a representative class of wearable robotic systems for rehabilitation, mobility assistance, occupational support, and human performance augmentation. As the field moves from laboratory prototypes toward clinical, industrial, and daily life deployment, research priorities are shifting from device-centered performance improvement to human-centered integration. This mini review provides a structured and critically oriented synthesis of exoskeleton technologies from four interconnected perspectives: technical architecture, technological paradigm evolution, deployment barriers, and future research directions. To improve transparency and reproducibility, we adopted a narrative review strategy with explicit literature selection criteria. Publications were identified from major scientific databases using combinations of keywords related to exoskeleton robotics, actuation, control, human-robot interaction, soft robotics, neural interfaces, rehabilitation, and wearable assistance. Representative studies were selected according to relevance, technical influence, clinical or engineering significance, and coverage of major technological paradigms. The review first analyzes three core technical dimensions-actuation systems, control strategies, and human-robot interaction which jointly determine the performance, adaptability, and usability of exoskeleton systems. Rather than only summarizing these technologies, we compare their trade-offs in terms of power density, control precision, compliance, energy efficiency, personalization, safety, and deployment readiness. The review then examines the evolution from rigid exoskeletons, which provide high structural support and precise force transmission, to soft exoskeletons, which improve compliance and comfort, and further to bio-integrated systems that combine neural interfaces, functional electrical stimulation, multimodal sensing, and mechanical assistance. Based on this synthesis, we organize the review using a Human-Exoskeleton Integration Maturity Framework spanning mechanical coupling, physical compliance, functional adaptation, and cognitive/bio-integrated coupling. Persistent barriers, including energy supply, personalization, safety assurance, cost, regulatory translation, and ethical governance, are critically discussed. Finally, future directions are outlined, including neural-interface-driven control, multimodal perception, human-in-the-loop optimization, hybrid rigid-soft architectures, and socially responsible design. Overall, this review argues that the next stage of exoskeleton development will depend not merely on stronger actuators or more intelligent algorithms, but on integrated systems that are adaptive, trustworthy, affordable, and seamlessly embedded in human movement and function.
At the frontiers of X-ray and high-power laser optics, Professor Zhanshan Wang has made outstanding contributions from fundamental mechanism to fabrication technologies and high performance applications over the last 25 years. As a Professor at Tongji University, he leads the Innovative Research Group of the National Natural Science Foundation of China, pioneered a novel theoretical framework for the synergistic tailoring of spectral response, electric field distribution, irradiation damage and optical loss in thin films optics. He developed high-precision characterization methods for resolving atomic-scale defects in coatings, invented a full-process and quantitative fabrication technology for thin film optics. By establishing premier research platforms and cultivating a highly skilled scientific team, his sustained efforts have greatly improved the performance of X-ray and optical thin-film devices which have been widely applied in synchrotron radiation, high power laser facilities, and space telescope. In this interview, he reflects on the scientific concepts guiding his research on X-ray and laser optics, the philosophy behind cultivating a world-class research team, and his vision for the future of optical science and technology.