Estuaries serve as vital foraging and resting grounds for over-wintering bird populations whilst providing provisioning, regulating and cultural ecosystem services. Macroalgal blooms, primarily from the Ulva genus, can grow superabundantly to create dense layers which smother intertidal mudflats in spring and summer months. During autumn and winter residual mats remain, potentially impacting over-wintering birds. This study assessed the impact of residual macroalgal mats on over-wintering birds in the Milford Haven inner waterbody, Wales, UK. An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based normalised difference vegetative index (NDVI) imagery to classify algal density between May and September 2020. Subsequently, bird surveys were conducted from November 2020 to March 2021. Bird abundance, distribution, and behaviour across different areas of algal density (low, medium and high) were evaluated. Results indicated that golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria) and lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) preferred to rest in high and medium-density algal areas, while waterfowl and wading birds such as redshank (Tringa totanus) and Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata) were more abundant in low-density macroalgal areas. There was, however, no effect of residual macroalgal mats on over-wintering bird abundance or diversity. These findings indicate that while residual macroalgal mats may offer benefits for certain bird species, particularly for resting behaviours, the impact on the population metrics measured here had no effect, likely as a result of complex ecological interactions between overwintering birds and their environment. Macroalgal blooms, specifically Ulva sp., are expected to intensify under future climate and nutrient enrichment scenarios, which may provide ecotourism and recreational benefits through seasonal bird watching. Targeted monitoring is required to determine whether altered bird behaviour and foraging access translate into longer term impacts on population dynamics and estuarine functioning.
Environmental surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in wildlife remains limited, despite increasing recognition that resistance determinants can circulate across human, livestock, and natural ecosystems. Migratory waterbirds move long distances and aggregate at shared stopover and wintering sites, potentially facilitating the acquisition and redistribution of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) across regions. However, nationwide evidence describing the breadth of ARGs carried by winter migratory birds in Japan is scarce. We assessed the diversity and distribution of ARGs in pooled fecal samples from winter migratory birds across Japan. We analyzed pooled fecal DNA collected at migratory bird habitats across 12 local governments during the 2021-2022 and 2022-2023 winter seasons (24 pools). Avian host origin was inferred by DNA metabarcoding, and ARGs were profiled by probe-based target enrichment with read-based detection (ARG detected at ≥ 10 reads). Ducks (Anas spp. and Mareca spp.) were the predominant inferred hosts. ARGs were detected in all areas and included genes associated with resistance to multiple antibiotic classes used in livestock production. Across the two seasons, genes associated with resistance to gentamicin, cephalosporins, macrolides, tetracyclines, fosfomycin, clindamycin, penicillins, streptogramins, sulfonamides/trimethoprim, colistin, erythromycin, chloramphenicol, rifampicin, and isoniazid were detected in all 12 areas in at least one season. Genes associated with resistance to agents restricted for use in Japanese livestock production, including colistin, erythromycin, chloramphenicol, and rifampicin, were also detected in all 24 pools. Isoniazid-, gentamicin-, meropenem-, and tigecycline-associated genes were detected in 23/24, 20/24, 11/24, and 9/24 pools, respectively. These data indicate widespread environmental occurrence of diverse ARGs and support the possibility that migratory birds could contribute to long-distance dispersal of ARGs. Culture-based isolation, phenotypic testing, and quantitative analyses will be needed to identify host bacteria and assess clinical relevance.
Given the diversification of wingbeat utilisation for body propulsion among birds, it is essential to understand the relationship between skeletal morphology and flapping ability, depending on the wing depression exerted by the pectoralis muscle. The path between the origin and insertion of the pectoralis, which can be identified on the skeletal surface, indicates the orientation of the force it exerts. In this study, line segments were made within the pectoralis to represent the lines of muscle action (LoA). We then compared their overall orientation and distribution among different modes of wing-propelled locomotion (WPL) using three-dimensional skeletal models constructed from computed tomography and surface scans of 79 neornithine bird specimens. The species were selected to represent a diverse range of taxonomic groups, WPL modes, and body masses. The pectoralis LoAs in flap-flight and wing-propelled diving birds were oriented craniolaterally, whereas those in soaring birds were oriented more laterally. These differences in pectoralis profiles among species suggest a putative adaptation to generate forces more efficiently in the direction necessary for typical flapping styles. Therefore, the overall morphology of the thoracic skeleton, which reflects pectoral muscle orientation, can be an indicator of WPL mode. It can also be utilised as a more robust approach for reconstructing the locomotor capabilities of fossil taxa with avian-like musculoskeletal systems.
Mating signals, such as songs or plumage ornamentation, are key prezygotic barriers that promote behavioral isolation by ensuring that individuals are able to mate with conspecifics and avoid the costs of hybridization. Previous family-level comparative studies in birds have revealed that song similarity is positively correlated with the incidence of hybridization, whereas genomic research in avian hybrid zones suggests that plumage divergence does not necessarily prevent gene flow. However, no study has jointly evaluated the relative contribution of both signalling modalities to hybridization incidence within a broad macroevolutionary framework. We combined a large-scale dataset on documented hybridization events across bird species with quantitative measures of acoustic and plumage divergence and tested their association using phylogenetically informed comparative models. We found that species-level acoustic divergence showed a strong negative association with the number of hybridization partners after accounting for sympatry. In contrast, male plumage divergence did not predict hybridization incidence, yet female plumage divergence showed a significant negative association. These results indicate that song represents a major reproductive barrier in birds, probably because it is a long-range and evolutionarily labile signal. Moreover, male plumage coloration may play a more limited role in reproductive isolation, potentially because male ornaments may introgress more readily across species boundaries.
Biological invasions often generate complex ecological paradoxes, particularly when invasive species act as ecosystem engineers that simultaneously compete with and benefit native communities. Understanding these dual dynamics is critical for managing urban biodiversity. Here, we investigated the interactions between invasive monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) and native avifauna to assess the balance between behavioral competition and structural commensalism. We assessed competition through (1) agonistic interactions and (2) correlations between parakeet abundance and that of native species. Commensalism was evaluated by analyzing tenant species in parakeet nests and the drivers of their occurrence. Agonistic interactions manifested through highly species-specific conflicts: Density-dependent aggression with rock pigeons (Columba livia) was strictly reciprocal, while parakeets directed targeted intimidation toward Eurasian magpies (Pica pica). Conversely, direct agonistic encounters involving either Eurasian tree sparrows (Passer montanus) or house sparrows (Passer domesticus) were negligible. However, spatially, Passer spp. abundance correlated negatively with the number of parakeet nest chambers (a proxy for parakeet abundance), whereas common blackbirds (Turdus merula) showed a positive correlation. Furthermore, parakeets provided a massive structural subsidy. We recorded 11 native species breeding in 48% of surveyed parakeet nests (N = 252). Tree sparrows and stock doves (Columba oenas) dominated this tenant community, accounting for 86% of native breeding pairs. Native breeding abundance-including tree sparrows, stock doves, and rock pigeons-as well as total species richness scaled positively with nest chamber density. Yet, active parakeet presence limited nest use for stock doves but did not deter tree sparrows or rock pigeons from successful co-nesting. Our findings reveal a dual ecological dynamic: Parakeets show a negative spatial correlation with declining urban sparrows, yet simultaneously act as ecosystem engineers by providing valuable breeding habitats for local biodiversity. However, without data on tenant reproductive success and pathogen transmission, these novel subsidies risk functioning as ecological traps. Consequently, while indiscriminate nest removal could inadvertently harm native tenants, current evidence does not confirm the long-term safety of this commensalism. Effective management must transcend simple eradication, adopting a holistic framework that weighs the loss of nesting resources against the competitive and sanitary risks of retaining these invasive populations.
The avian sternum is the largest bone in the body to accommodate the large muscles required for flight. Previous analysis showed that variation in keel and sternum morphology only weakly reflected body size and flight style and implied that variation in caudal metasternum morphology was associated with expansion of bony trabeculae in some species. This study used area measurements to explore the idea that, to minimise body mass, variation in keel size was inversely correlated with variation in the shape of the metasternum. Data for sternum dimensions and area were collected from digital images of pectoral girdles and the sternum in articulation of 62 species representing 10 different orders. The keel area was expressed as a proportion of the total sternum area, and the area of the sternum from the ventral aspect occupied by bone was expressed as a proportion of the assumed maximum possible bone area. Phylogenetically controlled linear modelling explored the effects of body mass, order, sternum type and flight style. Sternum area and keel area exhibited isometric relationships with body mass which had different intercepts for each order. Proportional keel area was inversely related to body mass in some but not all orders. The proportional bone area exhibited a positive relationship with body mass and there was a significant effect of order. Proportional keel area exhibited a negative relationship with the proportional bone area. Both sternum type and flight style significantly affected proportional keel area and the proportional bone area. It was concluded that to save body mass, an increase in bone mass associated with the development of a keel has been mitigated by bone not developing (rather than extension of existing bone) in the caudal metasternum. Such patterns would also explain observed variation in sternum morphology in Mesozoic birds.
Bartonella henselae is the primary human pathogen species of this Gram-negative bacterial genus, associated with several clinical manifestations including cat scratch disease, bacillary angiomatosis, endocarditis, and myocarditis. This pathogen was recently detected in Triatoma sordida, a vector of Chagas disease in Brazil. Here, we investigated the presence of B. henselae DNA in Rhodnius prolixus, another triatomine vector of Trypanosoma cruzi maintained in an insectary and in ducks (Cairina moschata) used as a blood source for their colony. A total of 84 triatomines and blood samples from 10 ducks were analyzed by nested PCR targeting the ftsZ gene of B. henselae. Bacterial DNA was detected in four (4.76%) triatomines and in nine (90%) ducks. Sequencing of amplicons from three triatomines and two ducks revealed 100% identity, full query coverage, and highly significant E-values, indicating complete sequence identity to Bartonella henselae strain Houston-1. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study provides novel evidence of B. henselae DNA in R. prolixus and C. moschata. However, the vector competence of triatomines for transmitting this bacterium to humans and/or ducks remains unclear.
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Similar wing planform shapes have independently evolved in both hummingbirds and hawkmoths, indicating convergence. Functional analysis of bird wings has shown that the rigours of flight are a constraining influence on shape, resulting in evolution towards better functioning forms. Shape similarity in these analogous structures may therefore represent convergence upon a more functionally adapted morphology. Using theoretical morphospace, we test the performance of hummingbird and hummingbird-mimicking moth wings with birds and a dataset of other insect groups. When compared with birds, hummingbirds demonstrate a strong functional constraint, though this effect is absent when compared with insects that more closely match their flight mode. The phylogenetic signal of hummingbird wing shapes is minimal, though this result is likely clouded by variation introduced by sexual dimorphism. Evidence of functional constraint in the sampled planforms is small and varies according to taxa, with Macroglossum moths exhibiting the least constraint. This suggests that morphological convergence between hawkmoths and hummingbirds may result from selective pressures external to the functional constraints of flight.
The current research assessed the impact of various light sources on growth performance, immune response, lymphoid organ histopathology, and economic efficiency in broiler chickens within practical production conditions. A total of 180-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks were randomly divided into three treatment groups, each consisting of four replicates of 15 birds, and were raised for 42 days under incandescent (ICD; 60 W), compact fluorescent lamp (CFL; 30 W), and light-emitting diode (LED; 9 W) lighting systems. All birds were kept under uniform feeding and management conditions. Growth performance metrics were recorded on a weekly basis. The immune status was evaluated through serum immunoglobulin (IgA, IgG, IgM), Newcastle disease virus (NDV) antibody titres, and the heterophil-to-lymphocyte (H: L) ratio. A histopathological examination of lymphoid organs was also conducted. The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's post-hoc test. Birds raised under LED lighting exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) higher body weight, improved feed conversion ratios, enhanced immunoglobulin levels, higher NDV titres, and a lower H: L ratio in comparison to the ICD and CFL groups. Histopathological findings revealed well-developed lymphoid structures in birds treated with LED lighting. The economic analysis indicated reduced electricity costs and increased net returns associated with LED lighting. In conclusion, various lighting systems affect growth performance, immune response, and economic efficiency in broiler chickens, with LED lighting exhibiting superior overall performance under the conditions of this investigation.
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is an economically important pathogen in layers, as it is responsible for chronic respiratory disease. Routine detection of MG is performed via swabbing of the trachea or choanal cleft. However, the possible impact of repeated sampling events on in vivo MG population dynamics within individual subjects has not been investigated. Therefore, eighty 11 wk-old Hy-Line W-36 layer pullets were infected with F-strain MG, and were individually caged in one of 4 identical rooms, with 20 birds per room. Two wk post-infection, 5 birds in each room were randomly assigned to either 2, 4, 8, or 16 d sampling interval schedules, and were maintained for an additional 32 d. At each sampling event, the birds were swabbed in the choanal cleft and trachea, and sample-associated MG populations were quantified using real-time PCR. A complete block experimental design was employed, with room as an experimental block containing multiple replicates of each sampling schedule. Data, within birds, was subjected to repeated measures analysis. Undetected bacterial populations were considered as a negative sample. There was no evidence of any difference in probability of detecting a positive sample or in trend over time of microbial abundance due to the different sampling schedules. However, there were ∼26 times as many genomic equivalents of MG in the choanal cleft than in the trachea across all the sampling intervals, and significantly greater probability of positivity in the choanal cleft at d 16 and d 32. It was concluded that the site of sampling influenced MG population with the sampling interval exerting no additional influence.
This study evaluated the effects of spirulina supplementation in broiler diets on growth performance of live birds and meat quality of carcasses. A total of 270 one-day-old Ross 708 broiler chicks were obtained from a local hatchery, weighed, and assigned to 18 floor pens (4' × 4' each, 15 birds/pen). Birds were fed corn and soybean meal (SBM) based diets supplemented with spirulina at inclusion levels of 0% (control), 2.5%, and 5% during the starter (0-2 weeks), grower (2-4 weeks), and finisher (4-6 weeks) phases. Body weight and feed intake were measured weekly to calculate body weight gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR). On 6th week, eighteen broilers (one bird per pen) were processed and evaluated for color, meat quality, and sensory attributes. No significant difference was observed among the dietary treatments for feed intake, FCR, or body weight throughout the study period. Spirulina supplementation had no significant effect on villi height (VH), crypt depth (CD), and VH/CD ratio (P > 0.05). However, spirulina supplementation positively influenced gut microbiome composition by promoting the abundance of fiber-fermenting and probiotic-associated bacteria while maintaining microbial balance. No significant effects were observed on chilling yield, pH, or shear force across the treatment groups (P > 0.05). A notable increase in yellowness (b*) was observed in carcass skin and skinless fillets (P < 0.05). Sensory analysis revealed that 2.5% spirulina enhanced appearance scores (P < 0.05), whereas 5% spirulina reduced juiciness (p < 0.05), with no change for flavor, tenderness, aftertaste, and overall. Based on these results, spirulina served as an alternative feed resource up to 5.0% inclusion with favorable effects on gut health and carcass yellowness.
AbstractFood solicitation displays are critical for offspring survival and can become evolutionarily exaggerated because of sibling rivalry or parental conflict. Avian brood parasites represent extreme cases of these conflicts, using exaggerated begging displays to outcompete host offspring. Yet we know little about the physiology underlying such traits. Here, we investigated an interesting case of competitive begging asymmetry in brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) and host prothonotary warblers (Protonotaria citrea). Through behavioral assays, we found that cowbirds beg far longer than warblers, while each species' nestlings initiate begging at similar speeds. Meanwhile, complementary in situ muscle stimulation assays suggested that these effects were due to greater fatigue resistance in cowbirds compared with their host. While cowbirds represent only one evolutionary origin of obligate brood parasitism, our findings present a compelling path for future comparative work to explore muscular fatigue resistance as a key physiological innovation that facilitates competitive begging success in parasitic chicks.
Understanding mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) feeding behaviour is essential for assessing arbovirus transmission risk. Culex mosquitoes are key vectors, yet their host-feeding patterns in urban areas of South America remain understudied. This study examined the blood-feeding patterns of four Culex species in Córdoba, Argentina, emphasizing overall trends, seasonality and host preferences. Mosquitoes were collected during spring, summer and autumn across four urban sites over a 2-year period (2017-2018). Blood meals were identified through molecular analysis. Culex dolosus fed exclusively on birds, while Cx. interfor Dyar, Cx. saltanensis Dyar and Cx. quinquefasciatus Say fed on both birds and mammals. Culex quinquefasciatus accounted for most identified blood meals (n = 219), with 83% derived from birds and 17% from mammals. The most frequently detected local avian hosts were Zenaida auriculata (24.5%) and Passer domesticus (10%), while the most common mammalian hosts were Canis lupus familiaris (14.5%) and Homo sapiens (13.6%). Bird-derived blood meals predominated in all seasons. Forage ratio estimates indicated that Cx. quinquefasciatus exhibited a preference for P. domesticus, Agelaioides badius and C. lupus familiaris. These results highlight key vertebrate hosts potentially involved in local transmission cycles, with Z. auriculata and P. domesticus emerging as important nodes for arbovirus maintenance in urban Córdoba.
Birds periodically replace feathers through a process known as moult, often resulting in gaps in their wings or tail; however, many birds must retain locomotive capabilities even when moulting, such as perching. Although moult is known to affect flight performance, the compensatory strategies used by birds to adapt to moult-based changes remain underexplored. Using high-speed imaging, we extracted the wing and tail kinematics of a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), during moult and while fully feathered, as it performed a perching manoeuvre from three different heights. Our results show that the hawk adjusted its wing and tail kinematics to generate similar time-averaged force-to-weight ratios across trials for both feather conditions. However, during the first downstroke after take-off from all heights, the hawk used a significantly larger tail incidence angle and produced higher thrust during moult. Together, these observations suggest that moult only subtly alters time-averaged normalized aerodynamic forces, yet influences the timing of force production within the wingbeat cycle. This study contributes empirical evidence on how a moulting hawk can compensate for morphological variations and weight differences through kinematic changes. By identifying avian compensatory mechanisms, we can inform strategies for wildlife rehabilitation as well as damage tolerance for uncrewed aerial vehicles.
Vision in most animals follows a fixate-and-saccade pattern.1,2 Birds fixate their viewing direction, then rapidly shift this gaze through head and eye movements. We used a head-mounted eye-tracking system in flying pigeons to relate eye to head movement and map eye position within the head. After take-off, the birds increased their pupil size and adopted a fixed and consistent eye position in their heads. In different visual environments, eye position returned to within 1° of a fixed position during flight. Pigeons thus "lock" their eyes in place by actively maintaining a near-consistent eye position within their head. When flying, the birds positioned their eyes close to the primary horizontal axes of their vestibular systems. Because visual neurons share a common reference frame with the vestibular system,3 a consistent flight gaze position may actively align vision with vestibular sensing and facilitate perception of self-motion.4.
Early-life in ovo interventions are increasingly explored as tools to modulate poultry gut ecosystems and intestinal function. However, high-throughput evidence describing ileal and cecal microbiota responses following embryonic exposure remains limited. This study evaluated whether a single in ovo administration of a prebiotic (galactooligosaccharides) or a short-chain fatty acid donor (sodium butyrate) resulted in differences in gut microbial communities of broiler chickens at day 42 of age. On embryonic day 12, 1,068 fertile Ross 308 eggs were assigned to four treatments: non-injected control, saline-injected control, galactooligosaccharides (3.5 mg/0.2 mL), or sodium butyrate (0.3%/0.2 mL). Birds were reared to day 42, and ileal and cecal digesta were collected from 10 birds per group. Full-length 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing was used to characterize microbial composition and diversity. Galactooligosaccharides increased richness and diversity while maintaining dominance of Lactobacillus and promoting Romboutsia and unclassified Peptostreptococcaceae. Sodium butyrate induced a stronger restructuring of the microbiota, accompanied by reduced Lactobacillus abundance and enrichment of multiple Clostridia-associated genera together with representatives of Bacteroidota; community structure differed among treatments. In the cecum, galactooligosaccharides increased diversity and promoted expansion of taxa affiliated with Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae, including Faecalibacterium, Blautia, Barnesiella, and Sporobacter. In contrast, sodium butyrate reduced microbial diversity while enriching several Clostridia-associated taxa. Discriminant analysis identified distinct marker taxa in the ileum and cecum. In the ileum, sodium butyrate showed a broader range of discriminant taxa, whereas in the cecum most discriminant markers belonged to the class Clostridia. These findings demonstrate that galactooligosaccharides and sodium butyrate differentially modulate microbial communities in the ileum and cecum, highlighting the distinct effects of prebiotic and postbiotic in ovo interventions on gut microbiota composition.
Wildlife trafficking poses a major threat to biodiversity, particularly for species like parrots that are targeted in the pet trade. The Yellow-headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix), an endangered species native to Mexico and Central America, is frequently poached from unknown geographic locations, hindering the identification of smuggling sources and repatriation of any confiscated individuals. Here, we used population genomic tools to determine the source of 18 Yellow-headed Parrots confiscated as nestlings during a 2021 U.S.-Mexico border crossing into California. To build a genomic reference map, we extracted and sequenced DNA derived from the toe pads of historical museum specimens from across the range of three out of the four described A. oratrix subspecies. Genomic data revealed that the three sequenced subspecies correspond to unique ancestry groups and revealed a substantial genetic divide between Pacific and Atlantic coastal populations of A. o. oratrix. The smuggled parrots and parrots from the introduced population in southern California both consistently clustered with eastern populations of A. o. oratrix in genomic analyses. Concordantly, the predicted origin of these smuggled birds was eastern Mexico, based on the genomic reference map derived from historical samples. Kinship analysis reveals multiple cases of sibling-level relationships among the smuggled birds, suggesting that wild A. oratrix nests continue to be raided for the pet trade despite the species' endangered status. Overall, this study illustrates the power of using museum genomics to trace wildlife trafficking routes, inform conservation policy, and improve taxonomic resolution in species of conservation concern.
Recent studies have shown that dark nights are crucial for the maintenance of both body and brain health. Given unavoidable exposure to lighted night environment at the present time of increasing usage of light at night, it is critical to identify the nocturnal illumination that would still be less harmful. The present study addressed this, by examining daily activity-rest and nocturnal sleep patterns, and metabolic effects in diurnal zebra finches exposed to an equinox photoperiod (12:12 light: dark cycle) containing an identical light intensity during day (L = ~ 150 lux) and no light (0 lux) or three increasing dim light illuminations at 2-, 5- or 8-lux light intensities (n = 7 per condition). Illuminated nights caused disruptions in diurnal activity and feeding patterns, nocturnal sleep, and metabolism. In particular, birds under lighted nights showed an increased night activity and eating bouts, without a significant change in the 24-h activity and food intake, and fragmented sleep with frequent and smaller bouts. At the end of 3 weeks, birds were fatter and gained body mass under lighted night than those in dark night. We also found increased blood glucose levels and reduced oxalate, but not corticosterone, and concurrent effects on the expression of genes associated with glucose and lipid metabolism. Most importantly, however, the severity of deleterious effects paralleled the increasing nocturnal illumination, i.e., effects under 2 lux < 5 lux < 8 lux light intensity at night, compared to the dark night (0 lux). These results argue for the usage of reduced light intensity in situations where night light is unavoidable to minimize the health risks to animals, and perhaps humans in an urbanized environment.
Birds control flight differently to aircraft, morphing their wings and tail to modify forces rather than relying on hinged control surfaces. Some species, such as kestrels, are more manoeuvrable than similar-sized fixed-wing uncrewed air vehicles and can fly in more turbulent wind conditions. We propose that birds achieve this advantage partly through morphing and explore specific benefits that morphing might provide versus conventional control surfaces. Focusing on kestrel flight, we examined the aerodynamic effects of morphing using a high-fidelity robot replicating the predominant motions of wind-hovering kestrels. Wind-tunnel testing assessed the impacts of wing extension, tail spread and tail incidence on force production and stability. The findings illustrate flexibility in control inputs combinations for achieving required flight forces and the ability to trim for different levels of stability through area-changing degrees of freedom. Coupled wing and tail extension improved lift while decoupling lift and pitching moment modulation, reflecting strategies used in real kestrels. Surprisingly, wing and tail morphing offered no greater control authority than conventional control surfaces, but when combined with low wing inertia, yielded superior manoeuvrability. These findings highlight the potential of combining avian-inspired morphing with low-inertia wing designs to enhance the manoeuvrability and performance of small aircraft.