搜索结果：bioelectronics

Implantable electronics often adopt non-planar electrodes to resolve the conflict between conductivity and deformability. Encapsulation of these electrodes becomes a critical challenge for conventional elastic seals due to the elastic-contact-induced interfacial voids and consequential fluid ingress. Here, we present a viscoplastic interlayer that can adapt to the three-dimensional structures of non-planar electrodes, resulting in intimate contact and hermetic encapsulation. This interlayer is a polymeric composite that consists of a long-chain polyisobutylene as the matrix, a short-chain polyisobutylene as the plasticizer, and maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene as the foreign domains. Its viscoplasticity originates from the chain slippage and permanent disentanglement of the long-chain polyisobutylene, promoted by the plasticizers and confining domains, respectively. When synergized with covalent bonding, the interlayer derives defect-free interfaces between the sealing elastomer and various non-planar electrodes, such as microwires, micropillars, and serpentine electrodes. This intimate encapsulation stabilizes the signal-to-noise ratio of an electromechanical device for 50 weeks in acidic, neutral, and alkaline solutions and extends the in vivo duration of signal fidelity for stretchable bioelectronics to a record of 45 weeks. This viscoplastic interlayer provides fruitful implications for improving the long-term stability of implantable bioelectronics.

Developing a reliable, long-term electrical interface for implanted bioelectronics is essential for chronic diagnostics, therapeutics, and device maintenance. Here, we introduce the implantable bioelectronic outlet (IBO), a soft, tissue-like electronic interface that enables on-demand, direct ohmic connection between implanted electronics and external devices. IBO is composed of a conducting polymer-coated low-density polymer matrix that is jacketed with a hydrophobic elastomer, allowing repetitive insertion of external electrical contacts without crack propagation. IBO was functional after 1 year of implantation with minimal tissue effects. We demonstrate that IBO enables high-fidelity, bidirectional transmission of signals and power, including low-voltage neurophysiological signals, high-speed digital signals, neurostimulation protocols, and efficient high-current power delivery, validated in small and large animal model studies. The IBO provides a robust and scalable platform for safe, direct, and durable electrical interfacing with implantable bioelectronics.

Chronic wounds remain a major global health challenge despite substantial advances in biomaterials, regenerative medicine, and wound-care technologies. Current therapeutic strategies are largely based on the assumption that chronic wounds represent impaired or incomplete healing responses and therefore require augmentation of regenerative processes. This paradigm has driven the development of increasingly sophisticated wound dressings incorporating extracellular matrix analogs, growth factors, stem cells, extracellular vesicles, biosensors, and bioelectronic components. However, the clinical impact of these innovations has often fallen short of expectations. In this review, we propose a conceptual framework intended to generate experimentally testable hypotheses rather than provide a definitive mechanistic model. Persistent alterations in immune, stromal, vascular, extracellular matrix, metabolic, mechanical, and microbial networks create interconnected feedback systems that resist transition toward regeneration. From this perspective, successful therapy requires not only stimulation of repair mechanisms but also disruption of the processes that stabilize chronicity. We discuss how advances in systems biology, immunomodulatory biomaterials, bioelectronics, artificial intelligence, and precision medicine support the emergence of adaptive therapeutic interfaces capable of sensing, interpreting, and reprogramming pathological tissue behavior. Unlike previous reviews that primarily summarize emerging wound dressings or regenerative biomaterials, this Review proposes a systems-level conceptual framework in which chronic wounds are interpreted as stable pathological tissue states maintained by multiscale biological memory. This perspective integrates biomaterials, systems biology, artificial intelligence, and tissue-state dynamics into a unified translational model that has not previously been presented in the wound-healing literature. Previous reviews have predominantly focused on the design, biological activity, or clinical performance of individual biomaterials. In contrast, the present Review proposes a systems-level framework that integrates wound biology, biological memory, tissue-state dynamics, artificial intelligence, and adaptive biomaterials into a unified conceptual model for precision wound medicine. This state-based model reframes advanced wound dressings as tools for biological state engineering and provides a translational framework for the future of chronic wound management.

Facial electrophysiological signals are crucial to human-machine interfaces and health care monitoring. Soft and skin-conformable electrodes enabled long-term and comfortable signal monitoring. However, the appearance of the electrodes affects the wearer's social interactions and self-identity, making daily usage difficult and leaving appearance artifacts. Here, we developed fully invisible and unperceivable on-skin electrodes free from appearance artifacts. Neither the wearer nor observers can detect the visual and tactile presence of the electrodes on the skin. The unperceivable property was confirmed with sensory experiments and physical characterizations of the film on skin. Furthermore, our invisible electrodes did not affect the psychological conditions of the wearers, which confirms the feasibility of artifact-free monitoring in daily lives. Last, we demonstrated the functionality of our electrode with successful monitoring of various facial electrophysiological signals, including electrooculogram (EOG), electromyogram (EMG), and electroencephalogram (EEG). Our fully invisible electrodes provide a promising direction in developing on-skin bioelectronics, seamlessly integrating health monitoring and human-computer interaction technologies into people's daily lives.

Organic bioelectronics relies on materials capable of efficiently transducing signals between ionic biological environments and electronic devices. Conducting polymers are particularly attractive for this purpose due to their mixed ionic-electronic conductivity, mechanical compliance, and chemical tunability. Among them, bis-ethylenedioxythiophene-thiophene (ETE)-based polymers can be synthesized in situ via mild enzymatic reactions, enabling seamless and substrate-free integration with biological systems. Here, we investigate the impact of hydrophilic side-chain engineering on the physicochemical, electrochemical, and biological properties of ETE-based polymers by comparing two polymers which differ only by the presence of a triethylene glycol side chain between the ETE core and the terminal carboxylic group. We show that glycolation leads to increased film hydration and surface roughness without a measurable change in elastic modulus, suggesting competing effects from molecular ordering and ionic cross-linking. In a neuronal cell model, the glycolated polymer exhibits markedly enhanced cytocompatibility and cell adhesion, likely driven by its increased surface roughness and matrix topography. By combining electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring, in-operando UV-vis spectroscopy, and electrochemical atomic force microscopy, we correlate ionic transport, swelling behavior, and nanomechanical responses, revealing enhanced electrochemically induced swelling in the glycolated polymer. Finally, when implemented as active channel materials in organic electrochemical transistors, both polymers display comparable performance, although the glycolated polymer shows slightly reduced cycling stability. These findings highlight the complex trade-offs introduced by side-chain glycolation and provide design guidelines for enzymatically synthesized conducting polymers in bioelectronic interfaces.

Postoperative wound complications remain a major cause of morbidity, prolonged hospitalization, increased healthcare costs, and reduced quality of life. While traditional wound dressings functioned primarily as passive barriers against contamination and exudate, advances in wound biology have transformed surgical wound management. Tissue repair is now recognized as a dynamic immunometabolic process involving coordinated interactions among immune cells, stromal populations, extracellular matrix remodeling, mechanotransduction, mitochondrial function, redox balance, microbial ecology, and bioelectrical signaling. Consequently, modern wound dressings are increasingly designed as bioactive systems capable of actively modulating the wound microenvironment. Recent developments in biomaterials science, immunoengineering, nanotechnology, extracellular vesicle biology, bioelectronics, and artificial intelligence have enabled the creation of advanced wound platforms, including stimuli-responsive hydrogels, immunomodulatory biomaterials, nanozyme-based dressings, conductive scaffolds, oxygen-generating matrices, extracellular vesicle-loaded systems, and biosensor-integrated interfaces. Therapeutic strategies are progressively shifting from antimicrobial-focused approaches toward immune-regenerative modulation targeting chronic inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, ferroptosis, cellular senescence, and impaired mechanobiological signaling. This review examines emerging surgical wound dressings from mechanistic, translational, and biomaterial perspectives, highlighting current innovations, translational challenges, and future directions. Collectively, these technologies may enable intelligent therapeutic systems capable of sensing and directing tissue regeneration in real time.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with intrinsic dual proton-electron conductivity are highly desirable for energy conversion devices and chemical separation, yet merging these properties within a single crystalline phase remains a challenge. Here, we report two novel Mn(II)-based conjugated MOFs that share similar building blocks, but diverge into distinct topologies: a kagome lattice (kgm) and an unprecedented pseudo bex-d topology (Mn-HHTP-bex-d). These frameworks exhibit sharply contrasting conduction profile: Mn-HHTP-kgm demonstrates excellent electronic conductivity (8.4 × 10-1 S cm-1 at room temperature), but limited proton transport (3.6 × 10-7 S cm-1) at 98% relative humidity (RH), whereas the pseudo bex-d topology exhibits more balanced electronic conductivity (2.4 × 10-5 S cm-1) and proton conductivity (4.5 × 10-5 S cm-1 at 98% RH). Crystallographic and computational studies indicate that the efficient π-π stacking in kgm topology promotes charge delocalization and through-space charge transport for electrical conduction, while the pseudo bex-d topology leverages framework-incorporated water molecules and acetate moieties to establish efficient hydrogen-bonding networks for proton transport. This work highlights the critical role of topological control in modulating mixed-conduction properties and offers valuable insights for designing multifunctional MOFs for ambipolar devices, bioelectronics, and energy systems.

The advancement of high-performance n-type organic mixed ionic-electronic conductors (OMIECs) is pivotal to advancing organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) for next-generation bioelectronics. While current design strategies predominantly center on non-ionic conjugated polymers, their inherently hydrophobic backbones lead to suboptimal ionic transport characteristics. To address this challenge, we introduce an ionic acceptor design strategy of backbone cationization via B ← N functionalization within bipyridine and bipyrazine frameworks. Leveraging these cationic acceptors, we synthesized two n-type ionic polymer OMIECs, PBPyBF3, and PBPzBF3, which exhibit low-lying LUMO levels as low as -4.0 eV, elevated backbone torsional barriers, and ordered microstructures. Most critically, backbone cationization via B ← N coordination significantly enhances hydrophilicity by inducing a distinct porous film morphology, facilitated by hydrogen bonding with processing solvents. This structural evolution translates to a dramatically improved volumetric capacitance of 581 F cm-3. Consequently, OECTs based on cationic polymer PBPzBF3 exhibit an exceptional normalized transconductance of 38.9 S cm-1 and figure of merit of 215.9 F cm-1 V-1 s-1, ranking among the highest values reported for n-type OMIECs to date. Notably, electrocardiogram sensors integrated with PBPzBF3-OECTs exhibit high signal-to-noise ratios and superior sensitivity. This work establishes fundamental structure-property relationships governing ion-electron coupled transport in conjugated polymers.

Understanding the electrostatic interactions between an electrical charge carrier (polaron) and the compensating counterion, and how they evolve during the electrochemical doping of mixed ionic-electronic conducting polymers, is critical for designing new materials to enable applications from bioelectronics to neuromorphic computing. However, direct experimental probes of these interactions remain limited, hindering their development. Here, we introduce an in situ spectroelectrochemistry (SEC) approach that combines visible (vis), near-infrared (NIR), and infrared (IR) spectroscopy with the vibrational Stark effect to directly monitor polaron-ion pairs during the electrochemical doping of mixed conducting polymers. Using poly[3-(ethyl-4-butanoate)thiophene-2,5-diyl] (P3EBT) as a model, we exploit the ester carbonyl in its side chain as an internal vibrational probe of the local electrostatic field created by the polaron and its counterion. Using stepwise vis/NIR/IR SEC, we assign multiple stages of electrochemical doping. Stage 1 occurs at low voltages and features highly delocalized, two-dimensional polarons in aggregates and crystalline domains of the polymer. During stage 2, ions intercalate these domains, causing polarons to localize to single chains due to electrostatic trapping. After this, polarons form in the amorphous regions during stage 3. Calibrating the vibrational probe using a combination of vibrational solvatochromism measurements and molecular dynamic simulations, we quantify doping level-dependent changes in the electrostatic interactions between electronic and ionic charges, with changes in the detected local electric field strength as high as 5 MV/cm. These measurements suggest that polaron-ion distance governs trapping at low voltages, while polymer chain coherence length and bipolaron formation play a larger role at higher voltages. This work establishes the vibrational Stark effect probe as a powerful spectroelectrochemical tool for investigating mixed conducting materials.

Accurate acquisition of bioelectrical signals like electromyography (EMG) and electrocardiography (ECG) is essential for wearable health monitoring and human-machine interaction, yet remains severely compromised by electromagnetic interference (EMI) in ubiquitous electronic environments. To address this, a gradient-impedance Janus bioelectrode is engineered for high-fidelity, EMI-suppressed dual-biosignal sensing. This asymmetric architecture integrates a carbon nanotubes (CNTs)/NiFe2O4/thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) magnetic-dielectric aerogel with a highly conductive liquid-metal textile, establishing a continuous impedance gradient from the skin interface to the external ambient. This design enables a synergistic absorption-reflection-reabsorption mechanism, yielding an exceptional shielding effectiveness of 64&#xa0;dB with low reflection (R&#xa0;<&#xa0;0.24). By stabilizing the local electromagnetic field and minimizing interfacial impedance, the electrode achieves reliable EMG/ECG monitoring with a signal-to-noise ratio of 16.6&#xa0;dB under strong EMI. Moreover, a machine-learning framework leveraging fused dual-signal features attains 97.7% accuracy in human motion recognition, substantially surpassing single-modality approaches. This work introduces a signal-integrity-driven paradigm that unifies electromagnetic field management with physiological sensing, paving a general way toward EMI-resilient, high-precision bioelectronics.

High-density organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) arrays are essential for neuromorphic computing and bioelectronic interfaces, but progress has been limited by the low resolution of electrolyte patterning. Although conventional photolithography offers high feature resolution, it involves a fundamental trade-off among spatial resolution, ionic capacitance, and stability in the electrolyte. Here we report an ion compensation-assisted photolithography (ICAP) strategy that yields electrolyte micro-patterns combining high precision, high capacitance and high stability. A molecularly engineered electrolyte forms, under UV exposure, a physicochemical dual cross-linked network with strong solvent resistance and hydrophobicity, which suppresses swelling during both aqueous development and the subsequent ion-compensation step, preserving pattern fidelity. Ion compensation then restores and enhances the mobile-ion content, increasing areal capacitance. The resulting electrolytes achieve a record 2&#xa0;&#x3bc;m resolution, 15.6&#xa0;&#x3bc;F&#xa0;cm-2 capacitance, and strong thermal stability from&#x2009;-&#x2009;50 to 200&#xa0;&#xb0;C. Integrated into OECTs, the ICAP-patterned electrolytes suppress crosstalk by 97.6% and boost on/off ratios by 325%, reducing parasitic coupling by more than 40 times compared to unpatterned arrays. The method is compatible with p-type and n-type organic semiconductors and inorganic oxides, providing a versatile route to scalable neuromorphic circuits and advanced bioelectronics.

Fracture healing culminates in restoration of mechanical competence, yet clinical monitoring remains largely dependent on episodic imaging and subjective assessment, which provide delayed structural information and limited insight into the evolving stability of the fracture construct, contributing to uncertainty in clinical decision-making and delayed recognition of impaired healing. Advances in bioelectronics, implantable sensors, and wearable systems are enabling longitudinal assessment of fracture recovery by capturing quantitative signals related to mechanical load transfer, local tissue state, and functional activity in real-world settings. In this review, we synthesize recent developments in sensor-based fracture monitoring and propose a conceptual framework that integrates three complementary dimensions of healing assessment: mechanical competence, biological progression, and functional recovery. Among these, load-path sensing of implant-bone load transfer provides the most direct proxy for fracture stiffness and currently represents the most translationally mature approach, supported by emerging preclinical and early clinical studies. In contrast, biological sensing strategies, including impedance- and dielectric-based approaches, aim to detect earlier changes in callus composition but remain at lower levels of translational readiness, while wearable monitoring technologies offer scalable insights into rehabilitation trajectories but provide indirect measures of fracture stability. Collectively, these approaches support a transition from episodic structural imaging toward continuous, data-driven characterization of healing dynamics. Achieving clinical implementation will require workflow-integrated sensing systems, interpretable analytical frameworks linking sensor outputs to clinically actionable endpoints, and multicentre validation establishing standardized thresholds across fracture types and treatment strategies. Current literature on fracture healing monitoring is largely technology-centric, with limited integration of sensing outputs into clinically actionable frameworks. This review addresses that gap by providing a unified, decision-oriented synthesis that links mechanical, biological, and functional sensing paradigms to the core clinical endpoint of fracture healing, restoration of mechanical competence, and to key management decisions such as weight-bearing progression, follow-up intensity, and early detection of delayed union. By contextualizing existing technologies within a translational maturity (TRL) framework and evaluating evidence from benchtop, preclinical, and early human studies, this work identifies which sensing strategies are closest to clinical implementation and what barriers remain, including the need for standardized protocols, validated decision thresholds, workflow integration, and scalable data interpretation. The translational value of this review lies in defining how continuous, quantitative monitoring can complement or partially replace episodic imaging, enabling earlier, more objective, and individualized fracture care, while providing a roadmap for the development, validation, and clinical adoption of sensor-enabled, data-driven orthopaedic management systems.

Conventional neural interfaces are typically manufactured by photolithographic micromachining using thermoplastic insulators and noble-metal conductors. Although effective, these approaches require costly, time-intensive infrastructure, restrict material selection, and often produce devices with substantial mechanical and interfacial mismatch relative to soft neural tissue, limiting long-term performance. Here, we introduce CASPER (CAsted and Screen-Printed polymeric ElectRodes), a cleanroom-free and low-cost benchtop strategy for the fully manual fabrication of implantable neural interfaces from biocompatible polymeric materials. By combining polymer casting with manual screen printing and reusable molds, CASPER enables rapid electrode fabrication without specialized microfabrication equipment. As a proof of concept, we developed CASPER-cuff, a fully polymeric cuff electrode tailored to the swine cervical vagus nerve, integrating PDMS insulation with metal-free PEDOT:PSS conductive hydrogel active sites. CASPER-cuff exhibited tissue-compliant mechanical properties (E < 1 MPa), together with competitive electrochemical performance (|Z|@1 kHz = 3.58 &#xb1; 1.78 k&#x3a9;; cCSC = 74.98 &#xb1; 20.27 mC cm-2), demonstrating that marked simplification of manufacturing does not compromise device function. In vivo implantation further showed stable nerve coupling and reliable stimulation and recording of evoked compound action potentials, consistent with vagal B-fiber recruitment. CASPER establishes an accessible route toward customizable, fully polymeric soft neural interfaces for bioelectronic medicine.

Hydrogels are widely used in biomedical and bioelectronic applications owing to their tissue-like properties, including biocompatibility, softness and three-dimensional architecture. In recent years, semiconducting behaviour was demonstrated in hydrogels through the network design of &#x3c0;-conjugated polymers, extending their potential to advanced electronic applications such as transistors. In this Review, we provide an overview of the design, fabrication, characterization and benchmarking standards of &#x3c0;-conjugated hydrogel semiconductors, a rapidly evolving field requiring interdisciplinary knowledge across organic electronics, electrochemistry and soft materials. We demonstrate how to understand and regulate ion and electron transport, as well as their interactions, both thermodynamically and kinetically, in these &#x3c0;-conjugated supramolecular systems. Finally, we envision the potential of these materials to advance spatiotemporal biological research, wearable healthcare, implantable medicine and beyond.

Minimally invasive brain modulation is essential for understanding and treating neurological disorders. This study presents a wireless, optically controlled nitric oxide (NO)-releasing microbioelectronic device (ONMD) that enables peripheral-to-central neuromodulation without direct brain intervention. Upon light activation, the ONMD releases NO to locally activate transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, forming a confined NO-TRP signaling hub that selectively stimulates the vagus nerve and activates the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), a key brainstem center involved in autonomic and reward regulation. Through this hierarchical pathway, the ONMD-mediated neuromodulation alleviates depressive-like behaviors in mice, accompanied by reduced peripheral inflammation and restored central serotonin (5-HT) homeostasis. Operating in the intestine, the ONMD achieves remote modulation of central circuits through peripheral access. This gasotransmitter-mediated, multilevel bioelectronic approach offers a noninvasive strategy for regulating brain function and advancing neuropsychiatric therapies.

Flexible strain sensors are essential components for wearable electronics, implantable biointerfaces, and soft human-machine systems. As application scenarios expand from epidermal monitoring toward long-term in vivo operation, increasingly stringent requirements are imposed on multifunctionality, mechanical compliance, signal stability, and biointegration. Carbon-based functional materials, owing to their tunable electrical properties, structural versatility, and favorable electromechanical compatibility, have emerged as a central materials platform for next-generation flexible strain sensors. This review presents a comprehensive, mechanism-oriented overview of carbon-enabled flexible strain sensing, encompassing piezoresistive, capacitive, and piezoelectric transduction modes. This review systematically examine how carbon material dimensionality including low-dimensional nanofillers, two-dimensional sheets, and three-dimensional porous, governing sensitivity, durability, and long-term device reliability. Particular emphasis is placed on contrasting the fundamentally different design requirements of wearable and implantable systems, including sensitivity-stability trade-offs, tissue-level mechanical matching, and operational robustness in complex biological environments. Distinct from prior material- or device-centric reviews, this review establishes a unified framework linking carbon architectures, sensing mechanisms, and application contexts, thereby clarifying critical bottlenecks and design principles for advancing multifunctional, biointegrated strain sensors toward practical and translational use.

Phytoplankton cells exude a wide array of chemicals in the water column, generating a localized microenvironment known as the phycosphere. Although it is now well accepted that the phycosphere mediates interactions between phytoplankton and bacteria, the chemical gradients around individual phytoplankton cells have never been explicitly measured, and their shape has been classically assumed to be set by ideal diffusion. Here we used Raman microspectroscopy to obtain micrometer-scale measurements of the concentration profile of a phytoplankton metabolite (fucoxanthin) around individual phytoplankton cells of different species, having radii between [Formula: see text] and 60 [Formula: see text]m. We found that fucoxanthin concentration decreases more rapidly with distance from the cell than predicted by ideal diffusion, showing that the phycosphere includes compounds whose diffusion is characterized by nonideal effects. We explain this observation using a space-dependent diffusivity model where nonideality arises from viscosity and solubility gradients in the extracellular environment. Our results suggest an onion-structured model of the phycosphere, in which small hydrophilic solutes that obey ideal diffusion generate broad but weak gradients, whereas insoluble compounds are retained within [Formula: see text] to [Formula: see text] from the phytoplankton cell surface and yield steep gradients of organic matter. These observations, supported by evidence that fucoxanthin can act as an effective chemoattractant for marine bacteria, show the existence of strong and highly localized chemical cues with potentially far-reaching impacts on microbial interactions in aquatic environments. These findings highlight the importance of directly measuring the microscale chemical landscape experienced by marine microbes.