International Journal of Scientific Reports is an open access, international, peer-reviewed multidisciplinary science and technology journal. The journal's full text is available online at http://www.sci-rep.com. International Journal of Scientific Reports is dedicated to publishing research from all areas of science and technology. The journal has a broad coverage of Medical sciences, Dental sciences, Physiotherapy, Biological sciences, Pharmaceutical sciences, Earth and environmental sciences, Physical sciences. International Journal of Scientific Reports is one of the fastest communication journals and articles are published online within short time after acceptance of manuscripts. The types of articles accepted include original research articles, review articles, editorial, news, case reports, short communications, correspondence, images, problem solving, perspectives and new updates. It is published monthly and available in print and online version.
in a child's digestive tract. There is some evidence that maternal, perinatal, and environmental-cultural factors influence the modulation of the breast milk microbiome. This review summarizes research that has examined the composition of the breast milk microbiome and the factors that may influence it. The manuscript highlights the potential importance of the breast milk microbiome for the future development and health of children. The origin of bacteria in breast milk is thought to include the mother's digestive tract (entero-mammary tract), bacterial exposure to the breast during breastfeeding, and the retrograde flow of breast milk from the infant's mouth to the woman's milk ducts. Unfortunately, despite increasingly more precise methods for assessing microorganisms in human milk, the topic of the human milk microbiome is still quite limited and requires scientific research that takes into account various conditions.
The question of how and when to introduce undergraduates to primary research articles is a perennial problem. We describe here a series of exercises undertaken with Level One students as introductory training towards the reading and presentation of scientific papers at Level Three and the writing up of final year research projects. In the first exercise, students consider the structure of a scientific report and read and evaluate a given research paper. Subsequently, students are asked to imagine themselves as scientific investigators interested in a specific problem. In tutor-led group discussion, they design an experiment to investigate the problem and then individually write a report based on provided data.
Publications addressing aluminum (Al)-induced reproductive toxicity were reviewed. Key details were compiled in summary tables. Approximate systemic Al exposure, a measure of bioavailability, was calculated for each exposure, based on the Al percentage in the dosed Al species, Al bioavailability, and absorption time course reports for the exposure route. This was limited to laboratory animal studies because no controlled-exposure human studies were found. Intended Al exposure was compared to unintended dietary Al exposure. The considerable and variable Al content of laboratory animal diets creates uncertainty about reproductive function in the absence of Al. Aluminum-induced reproductive toxicity in female mice and rats was evident after exposure to ≥25-fold the amount of Al consumed in the diet. Generally, the additional daily Al systemic exposure of studies that reported statistically significant results was greater than 100-fold above the typical human daily Al dietary consumption equivalent. Male reproductive endpoints were significantly affected after exposure to lower levels of Al than females. Increased Al intake increased fetus, placenta, and testes Al concentrations, to a greater extent in the placenta than fetus, and, in some cases, more in the testes than placenta. An adverse outcome pathway (AOP) was constructed for males based on the results of the reviewed studies. The proposed AOP includes oxidative stress as the molecular initiating event and increased malondialdehyde, DNA and spermatozoal damage, and decreased blood testosterone and sperm count as subsequent key events. Recommendations for the design of future studies of reproductive outcomes following exposure to Al are provided.
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Over the past 30 years, a significant increase in the prevalence of insulin resistance (IR) has been observed. It is associated with more frequent occurrence of impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes, excessive weight, cardiovascular diseases, and endocrine disorders. The results of current studies do not indicate a necessity to exclude dairy products from the diet of insulin-resistant individuals. In addition, it has been found that moderate amounts of alcohol as part of a balanced, low-energy diet do not have a negative effect on insulin sensitivity. The authors of recent studies emphasize the importance of reducing the intake of simple sugars, especially from sweet drinks, sweets and excessive fruit juice consuption. Many studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of consuming complex, low-glycemic-index carbohydrates that are rich in dietary fiber. An insulin-resistant patient's diet should be rich in whole grains and high amounts of non-starchy vegetables and raw fruit. The beneficial effect of the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH diet) and the Mediterranean diet has been confirmed. The positive correlation between low-carbohydrate and very-low-carbohydrate diets requires confirmation in long-term studies with the participation of insulin-resistant patients. Research shows the benefits of increased calorific intake during the first half of the day, especially from a high-energy and low-glycemic-index breakfast. Furthermore, many researchers indicate that slow and mindful eating is a significant component of an appropriate diet for insulin-resistant individuals.
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Cytokines are signalling proteins generated in most part by immune cells that have critical functions in cellular lifespan. Here we present recent data on three selected anti-inflammatory cytokines: interleukin (IL)-10, IL-4 and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). IL-10 inhibits the synthesis of major pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and mediates anti-inflammatory reactions. IL-4 is a multifunctional cytokine which plays a crucial role in the regulation of immune responses and is involved in processes associated with development and differentiation of lymphocytes and regulation of T cell survival. Transforming TGF-β, which in normal cells or pre-cancerous cells, promotes proliferation arrest which represses tumour growth. In this review, we focus on the influence of IL-10, IL-4 and TGF-β on various types of cancer as well as potential of these selected cytokines to serve as new biomarkers which can support effective therapies for cancer patients. This article is presented based on a review of the newest research results.
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Epidemiological data indicate that infertility is a problem of global proportions, affecting one- fifth of couples trying to conceive worldwide (60-80 mln). According to the trends observed, the problem is predicted to increase by another two million cases annually. In Poland, infertility-related issues are found in about 19% of couples, including 4% with infertility and 15% with limited fertility. Inability to conceive occurs equally in men and women (50%), irrespective of the direct cause. Although it is generally thought that reproductive issues concern women, infertility affects men and women equally. This study is an attempted to systematize knowledge about the role of the male factor in infertility, particularly current knowledge concerning the environmental factors of infertility. For this purpose, the Medline and CINAHL databases and the Cochrane Library was searched for articles published in English during the last 10 years, using the following keywords: infertility, male factor, semen examination and environmental factor of infertility.
China Liver Transplant Registry (CLTR) is the official national liver transplant registry in Mainland China that has been authorized by the National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China (NHFPC) and serves for both regulatory and scientific purposes. The CLTR 2011 annual scientific reports released national statistics describing current status of liver transplant (LT) in China. This article, as an accompanying document of CLTR 2011 annual scientific report, provides an overview of scientific results for LT in China. Up to December 2011, a total number of 20,877 LT performed during 1980-2011 in 81 certified transplant centers had been reported to CLTR. Of these donated livers, 92.63% were procured from deceased donors (N=19,338) and 7.37% were from living donors (N=1,539). In March 2010, the pilot project of the new deceased organ donation was initiated. From the initiation of the pilot program to the end of 2011, there were 115 LT (0.55% of all LT) using the liver grafts from Chinese categories donors. The recipient post-transplant survival had been significantly improved over years. The median post-transplant follow-up was 14.74 months, of which the longest follow-up time was 192.47 months. The 1-year, 3-year and 5-year cumulative survival rate for all recipients was 77.97%, 65.38% and 60.53%, respectively.
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Ford Motor said it expected the federal government to refund $1。3 billion the company paid in tariffs that the Supreme Court later struck down
John Ternus, who will take over in September, spoke publicly on an investor call for the first time since his new job was announced
How can we change a particular behaviour most effectively—such as reducing alcohol consumption? A behavioural scientist trying to answer this question would probably examine the content of the most effective alcohol consumption reduction interventions in the literature. This sounds straightforward but, because of limitations in the way that such interventions are reported, identifying the content of evaluated behaviour change interventions (BCIs) is challenging and sometimes impossible. The descriptions included in published evaluation reports almost always fall far short of what is required for replication, and intervention manuals (or protocols) describing exactly what materials were used and exactly what was conducted are often not available from the authors of evaluation reports. For example, a study of the intervention content of a Cochrane review of audit and feedback interventions was able to obtain additional material about intervention content from only 27% (16 of 59) authors contacted 1. Thus, although Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) guidelines specify that evaluators should report ‘precise details of interventions (as) . . . actually administered’2, this is rarely achieved in behavioural science. In our experience, even when intervention manuals are available they vary greatly in the level of detail and style. This collective failure to describe clearly the experimental procedures on which published findings are based is unacceptable in other scientific communities, and should be unacceptable in addiction science. It also has serious consequences for the development and impact of our scientific endeavours to understand ‘what works and how’3. The variability in terminology used to describe the content of BCIs is clearly evident when comparing the descriptions of interventions provided in published evaluations. Different descriptions are employed by different researchers to refer to what appear to be near-identical procedures and quite different combinations of technique may be masked by vague descriptions such as ‘homework’, ‘educational materials’ or ‘behavioural counselling’. An example of the latter label specifying completely different techniques is ‘educating patients’4 and ‘feedback, self-monitoring and reinforcement’5. Thus decoding BCI content descriptions and comparing the content across interventions is painstaking detective work, and sometimes impossible to achieve. This highlights the need for consensual definitions of intervention techniques of the kind that are available in other sciences. Two meta-analyses have linked the detailed content of BCIs to effectiveness 6, 7. The first investigated which, of 10 intervention techniques, was associated with effectiveness in promoting condom use across 17 years of intervention evaluations. Condom use has received particular attention because of increased funding of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-preventive interventions. Results showed that inclusion of threat-inducing messages did not enhance effectiveness in any context or for any group, suggesting that this technique is ineffective in promoting condom use. This ground-breaking research is limited by consideration of only 10 intervention techniques. The second meta-analysis of efficacy of interventions found to change intentions across a range of (mainly health) behaviours found that use of incentives and provision of social support were associated more strongly with BCI effectiveness than any other content. It also found small to medium effects for goal setting, action planning and prompting of self-monitoring; yet none of these techniques were included in the analyses reported in the first meta-analysis. Thus, even when behavioural scientists set out to examine the link between specific BCI content and effectiveness, they focus upon different aspects of content and generate incompatible analyses of content–effectiveness relationships. Again this highlights the importance of developing consensual definitions of BCI techniques use (separately and in combination). This state of affairs impedes theory testing because, if specific techniques responsible for effectiveness cannot be identified, then causal mechanisms remain unclear 8. In addition, variability in intervention descriptions inhibit faithful adoption of effective interventions (e.g. by health promotion agencies), thereby curtailing the contribution of BCI evaluations to evidence-based practice. For example, if a technique associated with effectiveness is not identifiable in available intervention descriptions then adopting agencies are likely to omit this technique. If the intervention is found subsequently to be ineffective in an applied setting, this may be attributed wrongly to delivery failures rather than to (possibly unnoticed) deviations from the original content. First, behavioural scientists need to standardize how BCIs are described in intervention manuals and in evaluation reports. Davidson et al. 9 provide a useful extension of CONSORT, proposing that the following eight descriptors of BCIs be included in evaluation reports and manuals: the content or elements of the intervention, characteristics of the those delivering the intervention, characteristics of the recipients, the setting (e.g. work-site), the mode of delivery (e.g. face-to-face), the intensity (e.g. contact time), the duration (e.g. number sessions over a given period) and adherence to delivery protocols. Clarity concerning the first descriptor, the ‘content or elements’, requires further work. For example, Abraham & Michie 10 have shown how a defined set of 26 theory-linked techniques could be identified reliably across a range of BCIs. We have extended this recently to describe over 100 different behaviour change techniques, with definitions 11. Further development of such a nomenclature of technique definitions would provide a simplified and standardized method for describing the content of BCIs. Secondly, standardized intervention protocols or manuals should be published alongside intervention evaluations (e.g. to be posted on journal websites) so that researchers and practitioners can discover how techniques constituting the content of interventions were used in practice. This is necessary for replication, allowing scientists to accumulate evidence about intervention effects and causal mechanisms. It is also necessary for those delivering interventions to ensure that those shown to be effective are faithfully delivered and that ineffective interventions are not delivered. A great service to advancing science and health care would be provided if journals insisted on the public availability of interventions protocols as a condition for publishing intervention evaluations. None.
Ecosystem management is management driven by explicit goals, executed by policies, protocols, and practices, and made adaptable by monitoring and research based on our best understanding of the ecological interactions and processes necessary to sustain ecosystem composition, structure, and function. In recent years, sustainability has become an explicitly stated, even legislatively mandated, goal of natural resource management agencies. In practice, however, management approaches have often focused on maximizing short‐term yield and economic gain rather than long‐term sustainability. Several obstacles contribute to this disparity, including: (1) inadequate information on the biological diversity of environments; (2) widespread ignorance of the function and dynamics of ecosystems; (3) the openness and interconnectedness of ecosystems on scales that transcend management boundaries; (4) a prevailing public perception that the immediate economic and social value of supposedly renewable resources outweighs the risk of future ecosystem damage or the benefits of alternative management approaches. The goal of ecosystem management is to overcome these obstacles. Ecosystem management includes the following elements: (1) Sustainability. Ecosystem management does not focus primarily on deliverables" but rather regards intergenerational sustainability as a precondition. (2) Goals. Ecosystem management establishes measurable goals that specify future processes and outcomes necessary for sustainability. (3) Sound ecological models and understanding. Ecosystem management relies on research performed at all levels of ecological organization. (4) Complexity and connectedness. Ecosystem management recognizes that biological diversity and structural complexity strengthen ecosystems against disturbance and supply the genetic resources necessary to adapt to long‐term change. (5) The dynamic character of ecosystems. Recognizing that change and evolution are inherent in ecosystem sustainability, ecosystem management avoids attempts to freeze" ecosystems in a particular state or configuration. (6) Context and scale. Ecosystem processes operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, and their behavior at any given location is greatly affected by surrounding systems. Thus, there is no single appropriate scale or time frame for management. (7) Humans as ecosystem components. Ecosystem management values the active role of humans in achieving sustainable management goals. (8) Adaptability and accountability. Ecosystem management acknowledges that current knowledge and paradigms of ecosystem function are provisional, incomplete, and subject to change. Management approaches must be viewed as hypotheses to be tested by research and monitoring programs. The following are fundamental scientific precepts for ecosystem management. (1) Spatial and temporal scale are critical. Ecosystem function includes inputs, outputs, cycling of materials and energy, and the interactions of organisms. Boundaries defined for the study or management of one process are often inappropriate for the study of others; thus, ecosystem management requires a broad view. (2) Ecosystem function depends on its structure, diversity, and integrity. Ecosystem management seeks to maintain biological diversity as a critical component in strengthening ecosystems against disturbance. Thus, management of biological diversity requires a broad perspective and recognition that the complexity and function of any particular location is influenced heavily by the surrounding system. (3) Ecosystems are dynamic in space and time. Ecosystem management is challenging in part because ecosystems are constantly changing. Over time scales of decades or centuries, many landscapes are altered by natural disturbances that lead to mosaics of successional patches of different ages. Such patch dynamics are critical to ecosystem structure and function. (4) Uncertainty, surprise, and limits to knowledge. Ecosystem management acknowledges that, given sufficient time and space, unlikely events are certain to occur. Adaptive management addresses this uncertainty by combining democratic principles, scientific analysis, education, and institutional learning to increase our understanding of ecosystem processes and the consequences of management interventions, and to improve the quality of data upon which decisions must be made. Ecosystem management requires application of ecological science to natural resource actions. Moving from concepts to practice is a daunting challenge and will require the following steps and actions. (1) Defining sustainable goals and objectives. Sustainable strategies for the provision of ecosystem goods and services cannot take as their starting points statements of need or want such as mandated timber supply, water demand, or arbitrarily set harvests of shrimp or fish. Rather, sustainability must be the primary objective, and levels of commodity and amenity provision must be adjusted to meet that goal. (2) Reconciling spatial scales. Implementation of ecosystem management would be greatly simplified if management jurisdictions were spatially congruent with the behavior of ecosystem processes. Given the variation in spatial domain among processes, one perfect fit for all processes is virtually impossible; rather, ecosystem management must seek consensus among the various stakeholders within each ecosystem. (3) Reconciling temporal scales. Whereas management agencies are often forced to make decisions on a fiscal‐year basis, ecosystem management must deal with time scales that transcend human lifetimes. Ecosystem management requires long‐term planning and commitment. (4) Making the system adaptable and accountable. Successful ecosystem management requires institutions that are adaptable to changes in ecosystem characteristics and in our knowledge base. Adaptive management by definition requires the scientist's ongoing interaction with managers and the public. Communication must flow in both directions, and scientists must be willing to prioritize their research with regard to critical management needs. Scientists have much to offer in the development of monitoring programs, particularly in creating sampling approaches, statistical analyses, and scientific models. As our knowledge base evolves, scientists must develop new mechanisms to communicate research and management results. More professionals with an understanding of scientific, management, and social issues, and the ability to communicate with scientists, managers, and the public are needed. Ecosystem management is not a rejection of an anthropocentric for a totally biocentric worldview. Rather it is management that acknowledges the importance of human needs while at the same time confronting the reality that the capacity of our world to meet those needs in perpetuity has limits and depends on the functioning of ecosystems.