Epigenetic regulation has played a fundamental role in the evolution of plant reproduction. Across more than a billion years, ancestral genome-defense mechanisms in early eukaryotes were progressively expanded, diversified, and repurposed throughout the green lineage. Streptophyte algae assembled the first plant-specific methylation and small RNA systems, providing pre-adaptations for terrestrial reproduction. In bryophytes and early vascular plants, these systems became integrated into gametophyte development, sporogenesis, and meiotic genome protection. Seed plants experienced substantial diversification and expansion of chromatin regulators and small RNA machinery, enabling increasingly sophisticated control of cone, ovule, and embryo development. Angiosperms underwent the most dramatic rewiring of epigenetic pathways, including gene-family diversification, subfunctionalization, and the emergence of genomic imprinting, endosperm-specific demethylation, and lineage-specific reproductive small RNAs such as phasiRNAs. Convergent solutions, including imprinting, meiotic transposable element (TE) silencing, and TE-derived regulatory elements, arose independently across lineages. Rather than reflecting the emergence of entirely new molecular machinery, these innovations illustrate repeated functional co-option and regulatory rewiring of deeply conserved epigenetic modules. Ecological and life-history pressures further shaped epigenetic diversification, linking environmental stress, mating systems, and domestication to reproductive epigenetic plasticity. Recent evidence further demonstrates that epigenetic plasticity underlies the recurrent evolution of alternative reproductive strategies such as apomixis and contributes to reproductive responses to environmental stress. Advances in comparative epigenomics, single-cell technologies, and epigenome editing are now providing unprecedented opportunities to reconstruct the evolutionary history of reproductive epigenetic pathways and to harness them for crop improvement. Together, these findings reveal epigenetic regulation as a dynamic, modular, and deeply evolvable framework that has repeatedly enabled reproductive innovation throughout plant evolution.
Global warming affects plant growth and yield, posing a major threat to global food security. Male sexual reproduction is the most sensitive stage for plant yield under elevated temperature (eT). We show here that under eT conditions, plant growth and male reproduction depend on the ethylene-mediated activity of the histone demethylase REF6. Although eT-compromised plant performance of wild-type plants can be fortified by treatment with the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), ref6 mutant plants are insensitive to ACC, showing that ethylene-dependent eT-induced genes depend on REF6 histone demethylase activity. Sexual reproduction and yield, including pollen viability and germination, are strongly compromised in ethylene and ref6 mutants under eT conditions. Intriguingly, we demonstrate that the bacterial endophyte Enterobacter sp. SA187 deploys ethylene-mediated REF6 to protect plant growth and reproduction to eT. These results show that microbiome-assisted approaches can help to ensure food safety under changing climate conditions.
Biomass allocation patterns affect plant functions across all levels, ranging from plant growth and reproduction to the quality and energy flow of entire communities. Revealing the biomass allocation and allometric growth relationships among the dominant plant formations in alpine peat swamp wetlands not only can help elucidate the life history strategies of swamp plants, but also plays a crucial role in understanding the uncertainty of plant carbon sinks in peat swamp wetlands. Based on community surveys, this study employed analysis of variance (ANOVA) and standardized major axis estimation (SMA) to analyze the species composition, biomass allocation of different organs, and allometric growth relationships of the dominant plant formation in the alpine peat swamp wetlands of the Yellow River on the Gannon Plateau, Gansu Province, China. The results showed the following: (1) Peat swamp plants can be classified into six formations dominated by Carex muliensis, Blysmus sinocompressus, Carex atrofusca, Kobresia tibetica, Kobresia kansuensis, and Carex kansuensis. Environmental filtering was identified as the primary factor influencing the distribution of formations in this region. (2) The biomass allocation ratios of the dominant plant formations were ordered as follows: root mass ratio > leaf mass ratio > stem mass ratio. There were also significant differences in the biomass allocation of roots, stems, and leaves among different plant formations. (3) Isometric growth was observed between the leaf and stem biomass of the dominant plant formations (p > 0.05), while allometric growth relationships existed between root/leaf biomass and root/stem biomass (p < 0.05), with the growth rate of root biomass (RB) being higher than that of leaf biomass (LB) and stem biomass (SB). The biomass allocation patterns and allometric growth relationships among the roots, stems, and leaves of the dominant plant formations in peat swamp wetlands reflect the environmental plasticity mechanism of functional plant traits in heterogeneous habitats. Moreover, combining optimal allocation theory and allometric growth theory can better explain the biomass variation and adaptation mechanisms of dominant plant formations in peat swamp wetlands, providing a theoretical basis for understanding the habitat adaptation patterns of plants in alpine peat swamp wetlands.
For sessile plants, survival hinges on the dynamic allocation of limited resources among growth, defence and reproduction. We propose that the plant Hippo signalling network has evolved into a central strategic hub governing these fundamental trade-offs. Building upon its evolutionarily conserved pleiotropic roles, this hub in plants has acquired unique regulatory capacities. It integrates hormonal, developmental and stress signals to act as a cellular decision-maker, exhibiting organizational complexity that includes parallel branches and context-specific outputs. Plant-specific innovations-including a direct SIK1-MOB1 interaction that bypasses the canonical SAV1 scaffold, dual-specificity NDR kinases and MOB1A/B heterodimer formation-underpin this adaptive evolution. Crucially, the antagonism between SIK1 and MOB1 fine-tunes the jasmonate pathway, functioning as a molecular 'rheostat' for the growth-defence balance. Viewing the plant Hippo pathway through the lens of 'adaptive trade-off management' not only redefines its biological significance but also charts a new research agenda. We outline priorities to quantify signal flux through the hub, resolve the structure of plant-specific complexes and manipulate this decision-making system to engineer crops with optimized resilience and yield.
AbstractIn insectivorous birds the reproductive period often coincides with the spring development of vegetation, but whether there is a direct relationship between the two, and through which mechanisms this link could come about, is not clear. Trees release herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) when they are attacked by insects, and we test here whether birds use those alarm odors to modulate their behaviors and their reproduction. Using a two-step experimental approach, we first show under controlled conditions that blue tits are attracted to HIPVs mimicking a caterpillar attack on downy oak buds in early spring without having to learn them. We then equipped nest boxes in the field with the same artificial HIPVs. We did not find that birds that built their nest in HIPV nest boxes advanced lay dates or produced larger clutches. However, although this result was not statistically significant, slightly more nest boxes equipped with HIPVs were occupied compared with control ones, resulting in significantly more eggs, nestlings, and fledglings introduced into the population from these treated nest boxes. Our results thus show that blue tits innately detect and track subtle plant olfactory signals, while the link with reproductive decisions appears more tenuous and requires further investigation. Such a link with reproduction is nevertheless in line with recent studies showing that HIPVs can stimulate the reproductive physiology of songbirds and highlights new multitrophic interactions across plants, insects, and birds, an encouraging area of study for understanding adaptations to a constantly changing environment.
In plant organisms, cells have two ways of being connected to each other. They are either adhering to the same neighbouring cells since mitosis or they enter in contact de novo with a new cell and adhered themselves. These different intercellular interactions have multiple roles depending on the location of the cell studied or the stage of the plant's life cycle. Intercellular adhesion, for example, helps in maintaining tissue integrity, controlling cell shape, and even plays a role in defense. De novo cell adhesion, on the other hand, occurs at specific times in the life of the plant, particularly at three stages: cell elongation of fibres and their adhesion to each other, and during sexual plant reproduction: adhesion of the pollen grain to the stigma and adhesion of the pollen tube to the transmitting tract cells in the style and ovary. It is already well-known that the cell wall regulates cellular interactions and governs intercellular and de novo cell adhesion but only few studies have focused specifically on the molecules involved in the second mechanisms. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on the polymers involved in cell adhesion and separation in sporophyte tissues and male gametophytes on/in the female sporophyte.
Global food security is increasingly threatened by climate change, as rising temperatures compromise the yields of major staple crops, including wheat, rice, and maize. Enhancing plant thermotolerance has therefore become a critical priority for sustaining agricultural productivity. However, plant heat-stress responses have often been described as fragmented and pathway-specific, limiting their translation into effective crop improvement strategies. Here, we synthesize current knowledge of plant responses to heat stress and reframe them as an integrated set of design principles centered on preserving photosynthetic carbon gain under high temperature. By doing so, we provide a collection of insights that may help guide future research efforts and the development of strategies for improving plant thermotolerance. We organize major defense strategies into six functional domains: (i) membrane systems and structural integrity, (ii) photosynthetic regulation, (iii) protective metabolites and hormonal signaling, (iv) reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging, (v) protein homeostasis, and (vi) transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation. Rather than treating these responses as independent pathways, we emphasize their temporal hierarchy, energetic costs, and functional interconnections, highlighting their shared objective-maintaining CO2 assimilation, energy balance, and biomass accumulation as thermal damage accelerates. We further discuss how insights from mutagenesis, transgenic approaches, and targeted genetic modification can be translated into crop improvement, clarifying opportunities and trade-offs that emerge when thermotolerance is engineered at distinct physiological nodes. Together, this design-centered framework provides a unifying conceptual and practical roadmap for developing high-yielding, heat-tolerant cultivars, offering actionable guidance for sustaining crop productivity in a warming world.
Plant development is characterized by an open growth system, with tissue continuously produced by meristems. Many mature plant cells are not permanently fixed in a state of terminal differentiation. They retain a high degree of developmental plasticity and, under specific conditions (such as injury or hormonal signals), can dedifferentiate, returning to a state similar to that of stem cells, in order to re-enter the cell cycle, divide and regenerate new organs or entire, fertile plants. Essentially, plants are dynamic systems that continually build, adapt and reprogramme their shape, in contrast to the generally more canalized developmental pathways of animals. In plants, recurrent ontogeny and cellular totipotency allow mutations arising in somatic cells to become heritable if those cells contribute to reproductive tissues, a developmental scenario that is rare or absent in animals. Somatic hereditary changes bridge the gap between somatic variation and germline inheritance, offering unique pathways of adaptation, evolution and reproduction. In this review, we trace how genetic changes become heritable through somatic-to-germline transition. Furthermore, we highlight how environmental stressors can induce epigenetic variations, such as alterations in DNA methylation, which can be transmitted to unexposed offspring. Finally, we will discuss how the generation of cellular mosaicism enables us to trace how mutations spread and affect the entire organism, its progeny and its fitness.
Fluoride, a hazardous air and soil contaminant, poses significant risks to agricultural productivity and plant health. Its accumulation in soil and subsequent uptake by plant roots and mesophyll cells interfere with critical morphological, physiological, and biochemical processes essential for growth and development. Fluoride toxicity affects germination, respiration, photosynthesis, mineral nutrition, enzyme activity, and reproduction, ultimately reducing crop yield. It disrupts cell signaling pathways, impairs antioxidant enzyme function (e.g., superoxide dismutase), and interacts antagonistically with calcium, a key element in fertilization and pollen tube growth. The resulting toxicity manifests as chlorosis, necrosis, growth inhibition, leaf and fruit abscission, and reduced seed production. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of fluoride-induced stress in plants, highlighting recent advances in understanding its mechanisms and potential mitigation strategies. By synthesizing current findings, this study offers insights into developing fluoride-resistant crops and improving management practices to safeguard agricultural productivity in contaminated regions.
Advancing plant phenomics requires linking high-resolution phenotypic data to plant performance under environmental stresses like grazing. However, how intrinsic biological factors, specifically individual developmental stage, mediate phenotypic trade-offs in response to management remains poorly quantified. Using a phenomics approach on the dominant grass Stipa bungeana within a two-decade grazing experiment, we integrated multi-year, individual-level trait data to dissect the effects of grazing season (cold/warm), intensity (light/moderate/heavy), climate, and developmental stage (proxied by basal diameter) on vegetative and reproductive tiller phenomes. We show that warm-season grazing increased tiller production, whereas cold-season grazing simplified phenotypic correlation networks. Notably, developmental stage was the dominant driver of vegetative growth and individual biomass, while reproductive investment was primarily governed by external drivers (climate and grazing intensity). Path modeling revealed that developmental stage indirectly enhances sexual reproduction by fueling vegetative investment, jointly determining final biomass. This study suggests that individual developmental stage as a potential internal integrator of grazing signals, reshaping phenotypic architecture. Our findings provide a phenotype-driven framework for precision grassland management. By advocating for the monitoring of developmental stage composition, we bridge phenomics with sustainable practices, enabling dynamic grazing strategies that optimize the balance between productivity and ecosystem resilience.
Phenotypic plasticity is a universal property of living organisms, denoting the ability of a single genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to environmental variation (Bradshaw, 1965). This fundamental property is particularly relevant for plants which, due to their sessile nature, must rapidly respond to accommodate effects of global change on their development, growth, and reproduction (Schneider et al., 2026). Therefore, there has been a recent growing interest to uncover the genetic and molecular mechanisms underpinning phenotypic plasticity, with particular focus on agronomically relevant focal traits in different crops (Li et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021).
Conservation translocations are widely used to increase population size and redundancy, yet their genetic consequences are often uncertain, particularly for clonal species with unknown rates of sexual reproduction. Propagation through asexual reproduction is frequently employed in these systems, but its effectiveness for preserving genomic diversity remains poorly evaluated. We used genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data to assess the genetic outcomes of translocation efforts in Pleuropogon oregonus, a critically endangered grass endemic to eastern Oregon, USA. We quantified genetic diversity, relatedness, and population structure across natural and introduced sites and used coalescent simulations to infer the divergence history between disjunct populations. Genetic analyses identified two divergent lineages corresponding to northern and southern regions, with divergence predating the last glacial period and limited subsequent gene flow. Within regions, natural populations exhibited high clonality but retained genetically distinct individuals. Introductions that used vegetative propagules from the northern region maintained heterozygosity and allelic diversity comparable to sources and captured multiple distinct genotypes, including alleles likely originating from an unsampled source, thereby increasing population redundancy. In contrast, the introduction derived from a low-diversity, southern region source reflected similarly limited clonal diversity. Our results demonstrate that vegetative propagation can effectively preserve genomic diversity in clonal species when propagules are sampled representatively, but that evolutionary history may inform sourcing and mixing decisions. More broadly, this study provides an empirical framework for integrating genomic data into conservation translocations, highlighting conditions under which vegetative propagation maintains evolutionary potential and when it may pose risks to long-term persistence.
During morphogenesis of multicellular organs, cells in distinct positions need to meet specific functional requirements to form the appropriate tissue type. For example, epidermal tissues need to form at the organ surface. In plants, the epidermis is widely considered essential for morphogenesis due to its role in both restricting and promoting growth. In the root, epidermal cells are partially covered by a protective root cap and partially positioned at the organ surface. Here, we propose that epidermal cells at the organ surface have unique requirements for growth control due to high mechanical tension, while covered epidermal cells are mechanically shielded by the root cap. We present in silico and in vivo evidence that plants use surface mechanical cues to activate a cell-type-specific growth-control program involving the small guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) RAB-A5c, thereby allowing roots to maintain directional growth at the organ surface. Positional mechanical cues may thus be used to control expression of a sub-population of epidermal genes, linking gene regulation to surface-specific functional requirements.
Plant extracts rich in bioactive compounds, particularly polyphenols, have gained increasing attention in poultry breeder nutrition owing to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These properties help preserve intestinal integrity and support improvements in gamete quality and embryonic viability. Commercial feed products, such as Elife®, have been developed to incorporate additives, including flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, and phenolic acids, delivering polyphenols in highly bioavailable forms and ensuring effective antioxidant activity. This study evaluated the effects of dietary supplementation with Elife® in brown egg-layer breeders (males and females) on productive and reproductive performance, egg quality, incubation traits, and progeny outcomes. Two experiments were conducted with birds aged from 54 to 70 weeks. In Experiment 1, 30 Rhode Island Red roosters were allocated to the following treatment groups: basal diet without additives (CON); basal diet + 0.5 kg of Elife®/t of feed (E500); and basal diet + 1 kg of Elife®/t of feed (E1000). Body weight, feed intake, and sperm quality were measured in each rooster every 28 days. For Experiment 2, 210 White Plymouth Rock brown egg-layer hens were assigned to the same three treatments as in Experiment 1. Body weight, feed intake, laying rate, egg quality, and incubation parameters were recorded every 28 days. Roosters receiving E1000 showed significantly improved sperm motility and an increased proportion of morphologically normal sperm without affecting feed intake, body weight, or sperm vigor. Hens under E1000 had lower feed intake than controls while maintaining egg quality (P > 0.05). Furthermore, combined parental supplementation with Elife® improved egg hatchability, reduced early embryonic mortality, and increased day-old chick weight. Overall, combined parental supplementation with Elife® demonstrated an effective nutritional strategy for improving fertility, embryonic viability, and chick quality in brown egg-layer breeders.
Plant phenotypes are influenced by interactions among genetic, environmental, and microbial factors. Entomopathogenic fungi such as Akanthomyces muscarius are widely used in biological control, but their direct effects on plant growth and reproduction, independent of pest suppression, remain insufficiently understood. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of A. muscarius inoculation on the growth and reproductive parameters of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and to determine whether these effects are maintained in the offspring generation. In the primary generation, inoculation with A. muscarius significantly affected plant performance in a cultivar-dependent manner. In 'Morex', inoculated plants showed reduced height but increased aboveground biomass and reproductive parameters. In 'Golden Promise', inoculation increased both shoot and root biomass without affecting plant height. Even though offspring plants were not reinoculated, selected phenotypic differences associated with maternal inoculation were observed in that generation. However, no culturable A. muscarius was detected in offspring leaves or seeds under the applied culture conditions. Akanthomyces muscarius inoculation modified growth and reproductive parameters of barley and was associated with phenotypic differences in the offspring generation under controlled conditions. The underlying mechanisms remain unresolved and may involve intergenerational plasticity or other non-genetic maternal effects.
This study presents a comprehensive three-dimensional anatomical atlas of the adult Nilaparvata lugens using micro-CT and FIB-SEM. The reconstructions reveal the spatial organization of the flight muscle system, digestive tract, reproductive organs, and nervous system. The indirect flight muscles, including dorsal longitudinal and dorsoventral muscles, are structurally similar between sexes but show size differences in certain components. The female reproductive system occupies most of the abdominal cavity, reflecting high fecundity, while the male reproductive system features a specialized ejaculatory duct associated with muscular control. Notably, the genital coupling during copulation involves a sophisticated interlocking structure, ensuring stable alignment and preventing separation. These structural insights offer a holistic framework for understanding dispersal and reproduction in N. lugens, with implications for developing novel pest management strategies.
SUMMARYFungi in the genera Fusarium, Metarhizium, and Trichoderma (FMT) are traditionally defined by their roles as plant pathogens, insect pathogens, and mycoparasites, respectively. However, these classifications obscure both their shared hypocrealean ancestry and the remarkable ecological plasticity that characterizes all three genera. Across these lineages, plant endophytism appears to represent the predominant ecological state, with frequent transitions among saprotrophy, symbiosis, pathogenicity, and antagonism. Comparative genomics reveals that FMT fungi possess two-speed genomes comprising conserved core chromosomes and dynamic accessory regions enriched in host-interaction and secondary metabolism genes. These architectures support a shared hypocrealean genomic toolkit that has been differentially modified across lineages. In Fusarium, transitions along the mutualism-to-pathogenicity continuum appear to be driven primarily by regulatory plasticity rather than by major changes in gene content. By contrast, Metarhizium and Trichoderma expanded from ancestral pathogenic states toward broader plant associations through horizontal gene transfer, gene duplication, and diversification of host-recognition, signaling, and metabolite-production pathways. Reproductive strategies similarly reflect ecological divergence. Generalist lineages are predominantly clonal, whereas specialists more frequently retain sexual reproduction, facilitating adaptation to predictable hosts and environments. Ecologically, FMT fungi occupy overlapping but distinct niches: Trichoderma dominates stable environments through mycoparasitism and competitive exclusion; Fusarium thrives in disturbed habitats through rapid colonization of stressed plants; and Metarhizium bridges soil, plant, and insect environments through combined root association and insect pathogenicity. Collectively, FMT fungi illustrate how divergent ecological strategies can emerge through differential modification and regulatory deployment of a shared hypocrealean genomic toolkit.
The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) is a destructive phloem-feeding pest of alfalfa. Its overreliance on chemical insecticides necessitates the development of sustainable, plant-based resistance strategies. Plant flavonoids are important in induced defense, but their dynamic responses to aphid feeding and subsequent insecticidal effects remain unclear. Using the highly resistant alfalfa variety 'Gannong No. 5' (GN5), this study integrated behavioral assays, performance bioassays, untargeted and targeted metabolomics, and exogenous flavonoid feeding assays to investigate how pea aphid infestation alters flavonoid metabolism and thereby affects aphid performance. Bioassays confirmed strong antibiosis of GN5 against A. pisum. Behavioral choice assays showed that, at 2 h post-release, aphids significantly avoided plants pre-infested for 12 h and 48 h, but not those pre-infested for 24 h; by 8 h post-release, they significantly avoided all pre-infested plants regardless of infestation duration. Prolonged pre-infestation (48 h) also reduced average fecundity per female. Non-targeted metabolomics revealed substantial metabolic reprogramming after 48 h of aphid feeding, with most flavonoids and isoflavonoids significantly upregulated. Targeted metabolomics identified 28 flavonoids, among which only sakuranetin and chrysin were significantly upregulated after 48 h, indicating their specific induction. Finally, performance bioassays confirmed insecticidal effects in a concentration-dependent manner: sakuranetin at 0.1 μg/μL reduced reproduction, and at 10.0 μg/μL reduced survival; chrysin at 0.1 μg/μL reduced both survival and reproduction. Collectively, these results demonstrate that pea aphid feeding triggers the induction of specific defensive flavonoids in GN5, which may contribute to antibiosis. This study provides a theoretical basis for exploring flavonoid-based approaches in sustainable aphid management.
Trehalose transporter 1 (TRET1) plays a key role in insect trehalose homeostasis and abiotic stress adaptation. However, its role in insecticide susceptibility remains largely unexplored, particularly to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins. In Plutella xylostella, we found that PxTret1 is post-transcriptionally regulated by pxy-miR-8522. Furthermore, PxTret1 was significantly upregulated following Cry1Ac protoxin exposure, while pxy-miR-8522 was downregulated. Dual-luciferase assay confirmed that pxy-miR-8522 recognizes PxTret1. Overexpression of pxy-miR-8522 markedly downregulated the expression of PxTret1 in vivo and increased the larval mortality by 22% at 36 h after Cry1Ac treatment. Similar results were observed in larvae subjected to PxTret1 RNA interference, with mortality rising by 20% at 48 h after Cry1Ac exposure. Furthermore, these treatments impaired larval development and perturbed trehalose and glucose homeostasis. Overexpression of pxy-miR-8522 and RNAi treatment significantly decreased pupation rates by 36.11% and 54.36%, respectively. Transcriptomic analysis of these RNAi-treated larvae demonstrated that knockdown of PxTret1 dysregulates genes associated with chitin binding involved in maintaining peritrophic membrane stability, which can potentially lead to bacterial translocation from gut into hemolymph, eliciting subsequent immune responses. Moreover, knockdown of PxTret1 in pupae by overexpression of pxy-miR-8522 or RNAi severely compromised adult fitness, including shortened lifespan, wing deformities, and reduced fecundity. The adult abnormal rates of both groups were nearly twice those of the control. This work identifies PxTret1 as a molecular target with dual potential: enhancing Cry1Ac efficacy and suppressing pest fitness. By linking trehalose transport, chitin metabolism, and immune regulation, it advances our understanding of insect physiological networks and provides a foundation for developing RNAi-based or chemistry-driven strategies for sustainable pest management in cruciferous crops.