搜索结果：Physiology and molecular biology of plants : an international journal of functional plant biology

The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of Cd contamination in soil on metabolite composition, antioxidant defense system, and antibacterial potential of Mentha arvensis L. leaves. Plants were grown in pots exposed to Cd contamination through soil drenching at the rate of 100 ml pot-1 of solution containing 20 mg Cd L-1 as CdCl2·H2O till the maturity at an interval of seven days. Leaf extracts were prepared using 80% (v/v) methanol and were analysed for metabolite profiling, stomatal and secretory gland, biochemical analyses, and antibacterial activity using high-resolution mass spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, spectrophotometric assays and disc diffusion method, respectively. The findings revealed a substantial increase in Cd accumulation within the roots and shoots of M. arvensis, by 86% and 93%, respectively, as a result of higher Cd levels in soil. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis of the methanol leaf extract indicated a marked reduction in amino acids and their derivatives, alongside elevated levels of phenolic compounds, fatty acids, and lipids. A total of 953 and 792 phytochemicals were found to be upregulated and downregulated, respectively under elevated Cd exposure. Additionally, Cd stress significantly enhanced the levels of malondialdehyde, catalase, glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, proline, and ascorbic acid in the leaf tissues by 33%, 43%, 100%, 21%, 64%, 80%, and 66%, respectively, as compared to the control plants. Among the tested bacterial strains, methanol leaf extract showed the greatest reduction in inhibition zone against Staphylococcus aureus. Overall, the findings demonstrate that Cd stress induces strong oxidative and metabolic reprogramming in M. arvensis, leading to enhanced antioxidant responses and selective modulation of secondary metabolites. However, excessive Cd accumulation in plant tissues compromises the safety of the raw material for direct medicinal use. These results highlight the need for developing safe extraction technologies and phytoremediation-based strategies to harness stress-induced metabolites of M. arvensis without posing health risks. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01724-4.

Tropospheric ozone (O3) pollution and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) contamination are two of the most inescapable abiotic stressors threatening plant productivity and ecosystem stability. Independently, these stressors induce profound physiological and biochemical disruptions in plants, including oxidative stress, impaired stomatal function, and nutrient imbalances. Ozone primarily affects the apoplast, triggering reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated signalling, stomatal closure, and reprogramming of defense-related gene expression. While PTEs infiltrate cellular compartments, compromising photosynthesis, enzyme activities, and redox balance. Emerging studies reveal that their co-occurrence can produce antagonistic, synergistic, or additive possessions, depending on plant species, developmental stage, exposure intensity and experimental system. Both the stressors unite on oxidative stress (ROS) and antioxidant responses, stomatal behaviour, photosynthetic apparatus damage and altered nutrient and metal uptake/partitioning. However, insights into their combined impacts remain scarce. Literature is fragmented by methodological heterogeneity, limited crop coverage, and a lack of comprehensive omics, tracer and transport studies. This review scrutinizes the mechanistic responses of plants to individual and concurrent exposures to O₃ and PTEs, focusing on antioxidant defense systems, signaling networks, and key physiological traits. Additionally, we explore transcriptomic shifts that command acclimation or vulnerability, highlighting the molecular pathways that administrate plant responses under these stress conditions. Understanding these interactions is crucial for breeding resilient crop varieties and optimizing phytoremediation stratagems in polluted agroecosystems. Finally, this synthesis emphasizes the urgent need for multifactorial studies, standardized protocols, and validation under diverse soil and climatic conditions, crop genotypes and O₃ regimes to more accurately predict plant behaviour under real-world environmental stress scenarios. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01723-5.

Salinity stress disrupts plant metabolism by causing excessive buildup of methylglyoxal and reactive oxygen species, both of which demand efficient detoxification and redox balance. In this study, we combined genome-wide in silico analyses with molecular, biochemical, metabolic, and physiological approaches to explore how the glyoxalase system contributes to salinity stress adaptation in Artemisia annua. We identified 20 AaGLYI, 13 AaGLYII, and 7 AaGLYIII genes, all characterised by conserved domain structures, distinct motif patterns, and stress-responsive cis-regulatory elements. Phylogenetic analysis highlighted both evolutionary conservation and functional diversification of these gene families across plant species. Expression profiling of Arabidopsis orthologues, together with qRT-PCR validation of selected AaGLYs (AaGLYI18, AaGLYI20, AaGLYII05, AaGLYII11, AaGLYIII01, AaGLYIII02), revealed strong, time-dependent induction under salinity stress. This was coupled with enhanced glyoxalase enzyme activities and a transient spike in MG levels followed by efficient detoxification. Concurrent activation of the ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle maintained redox equilibrium during early stress phases, though prolonged exposure imposed redox constraints. Physiological assessments indicated early reductions in stomatal conductance and photochemical efficiency, partially compensated by increased non-photochemical quenching and preserved PSII integrity. Interestingly, glyoxalase activation under stress paralleled elevated expression of key artemisinin biosynthetic genes and higher in vivo artemisinin accumulation, suggesting a functional link between MG detoxification, redox regulation, and secondary metabolism during salinity stress in A. annua. Schematic representation demonstrating cellular and physiological reactions of Artemisia annua to salt stress. Salinity-induced ionic and osmotic instability results in increased generation of reactive oxygen species and methylglyoxal, leading to oxidative and carbonyl stress. MG is detoxified by the glyoxalase route by the sequential actions of GLYI and GLYII in a glutathione (GSH)-dependent manner, while GLYIII facilitates glutathione-independent detoxification under prolonged stress conditions. The activation of the glyoxalase system is precisely synchronised with the ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle, which includes APX, GR, MDHAR, and DHAR, to maintain redox homeostasis and mitigate oxidative damage. Metabolites generated from MG integrate into central carbon metabolism, facilitating metabolic reprogramming during stress. Simultaneously, physiological modifications such as proline buildup, increased non-photochemical quenching, and alterations in gas exchange and photosynthetic parameters facilitate the preservation of photosystem II integrity and adaptability to stress. The graphical abstract collectively emphasises the coordinated regulation of detoxification pathways, redox metabolism, and physiological responses that contribute to salinity tolerance. ROS, reactive oxygen species; MG, methylglyoxal; GLYI/II/III, glyoxalase I/II/III; GSH, reduced glutathione; GSSG, oxidised glutathione; AsA, ascorbate; APX, ascorbate peroxidase; GR, glutathione reductase; MDHAR, monodehydroascorbate reductase; DHAR, dehydroascorbate reductase; NPQ, non-photochemical quenching; PSII, photosystem II. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01751-1.

Variations in light conditions have a profound effect on plant development, photosynthetic activity and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. This study aimed to examine the effects of shading on leaf morphology, photosynthesis and wax biosynthesis in Taxus yunnanensis × T. media and to explore the potential regulatory role of light intensity in plant adaptability. The study combines transcriptome sequencing and metabolomics analysis to analyze the physiological characteristics, photosynthetic parameters, wax synthesis gene expression and metabolic changes of plants under five different light intensities. The relationship between wax synthesis genes and MYB was further explored. The results indicate that moderate shading significantly promotes plant height, leaf area and photosynthetic efficiency. It also increases the accumulation of chlorophyll and carotenoids and enhances the efficiency of light capture and utilization. Differentially expressed genes were mainly associated with pathways related to photosynthesis wax biosynthesis and secondary metabolism. The shading treatment also significantly upregulated the expression of genes related to wax synthesis, indicating that wax synthesis is effectively regulated under transcriptional regulation, thereby enhancing the plant's adaptability to environmental changes. Gene co-expression analysis further revealed a significant co-expression relationship between MYB23 transcription factors and these wax synthesis genes, further validating the key role of MYB23 in regulating wax synthesis. This study provides new insights into the adaptive mechanisms of plants under different light conditions and provides a theoretical basis for optimizing plant growth and secondary metabolite production in the future. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01755-x.

Plants have evolved dynamic and complex epigenetics-dependent mechanisms to ensure sustainable growth and development under various environmental circumstances. Histone acetylation is a post-translational modification (PTMs) important in controlling reversible changes in chromatin structure and gene activity. Plants have three distinct families of HDACs, designated as HD2, SRT2, and RPD3. RPD3 is a key class of HDACs and is present in all eukaryotes. In plants, the RPD3 family of HDACs plays an important role in various complex developmental processes and stress responses. The members of the RPD3 family interact with other members of HDACs and transcription factors as part of the repressor complex, establishing regulatory networks in response to various environmental cues. This review provides a brief overview of the studies on histone acetylation dynamics in yeast, plants, and mammals, as well as the regulation of gene transcription. We also provide an overview of the advancements in plant histone acetylation dynamics. Besides, we highlight RPD3's contribution to plant growth, development, and its function in plant stress responses. A comprehensive knowledge of the functions performed by the HDAC family might provide adaptable research viewpoints to improve crop productivity and stress tolerance.

Nitrogen (N) is a key macronutrient that influences plant growth and development, but its availability in the soil is a major limiting factor for crop productivity. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) utilizes only about one-third of the applied nitrogenous fertilizer for its growth and development, leading to a significant economic and environmental loss by unutilized applied N. Nitrate (NO3 -) is the major available form of nitrogen source which wheat plants uptake and transport by different nitrate transporters (NRTs). Among NRTs, NRT1.5 in Arabidopsis is involved in the nitrate root-to-shoot translocation. The present study undertakes characterization of ~ 2 kb promoter regions of three homeologs of the TaNPF7.1 gene (A, B, and D sub-genomes) homologous to NRT1.5 in an efficient NUE cultivar K9107. Our results demonstrated significant variations in cis-regulatory elements (CREs) and transcription factor (TF) binding sites among the homeologs and between K9107 and the Chinese Spring genotype. Functional validation using Arabidopsis transgenic reporter lines (pTaNPF7.1-A/-B/-D::GUS) under various conditions, including nutrient (nitrate, potassium) and abiotic stress, as well as hormonal treatment, revealed distinct promoter level regulation. All three promoters exhibited nitrate-inducibility in general, but the A and D sub-genomes showed potassium-responsive GUS expression, indicating crosstalk between the two major macronutrients and their coordinated signalling. pTaNPF7.1A showed the highest responsiveness to ABA, pTaNPF7.1B to drought, and pTaNPF7.1D to salt stress, highlighting divergence in the regulation of different stresses. These findings highlight the regulatory divergence of TaNPF7.1 through neo-functionalization, enabling better adaptation in various nutritional and abiotic conditions, and offer novel insights into nitrogen use efficiency and stress resilience in wheat. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01760-0.

Drought is a major abiotic constraint hindering the growth and productivity of agricultural as well as forestry species. Populus deltoids, a commercially cultivated agroforestry tree species of India, is highly sensitive to water-deficit stress. In recent years, exogenous Silicon (Si) and Salicylic acid (SA) have emerged as a crucial player in alleviation of drought and other abiotic stresses in plants but their role is poorly investigated in trees. The present study was conducted to examine the effect of foliar spray of 2 mM Si and 3 mM SA in mitigation of water-deficit stress in Populus deltoides. Plant resilience against water-deficit stress was assessed by recording physiological parameters and gene expression analysis under drought stress. Our results showed that individual as well as combined application of Si and SA improved plant height, leaf area and chlorophyll content of stressed poplar. Relative water content and electrolyte leakage was also adjusted to optimum level under stressed plant when sprayed with Si and SA. Explicitly, Si and SA enhanced proline content and superoxide dismutase activity, reduced the toxicity due to reactive oxygen species, and improved the membrane stability during stress conditions. Compared to SA, Si was more responsive in regulation of both class of Tonoplast intrinsic protein and Nodulin 26-like intrinsic protein aquaporins genes in poplar during stress conditions. This study demonstrated that both the individual as well as the combined application of exogenous Si and SA have significantly improved the growth performance of the poplar under water-deficit stress via physio-biochemical and molecular expression. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01775-7.

As a widespread environmental issue, soil salinization adversely affects plant growth and productivity. Carotenoids are important photosynthetic pigments with strong antioxidant activity, which can improve the tolerance of plants to abiotic stress by quenching reactive oxygen species (ROS) through the xanthophyll cycle. Through salt stress treatment on Chrysanthemum indicum and utilizing quantitative real-time PCR technology (qRT-PCR), carotenoid synthesis-related genes were screened, and the β-carotene hydroxylase (BCH) gene was localized. The CiBCH gene and its promoter were cloned from C. indicum, and the activation activity of the CiBCH gene promoter indicated its response to salt stress. Functional validation of CiBCH through overexpression in Arabidopsis showed that, under salt stress, transgenic plants exhibited significantly reduced accumulations of malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and superoxide anion (O₂⁻) compared to their wild-type (WT) counterparts. Concurrently, the CiBCH not only influences the carotenoid biosynthesis network in Arabidopsis but also synergistically enhances the expression of related genes and the biosynthesis of carotenoids, thereby promoting the accumulation of their downstream product, abscisic acid (ABA). Additionally, the transgenic lines exhibited significantly enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes along with upregulated expression of ROS scavenging genes compared to WT. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that CiBCH regulates plant oxidative stress responses through multiple mechanisms: inhibition of photosynthetic pigment degradation, influence on carotenoid biosynthesis, promotion of endogenous ABA accumulation, and enhancement of antioxidant enzyme activities. These findings provide a foundation for further investigation of BCH functions. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01742-2.

Kinetin (6-furfurylaminopurine; KN), a synthetic cytokinin, regulates various aspects of plant growth, physiology, and secondary metabolism. However, its potential role in enhancing essential oil (EO) biosynthesis in Ocimum basilicum L. remains largely unexplored. This study evaluated the effects of exogenous KN on growth performance, physio-biochemical attributes , antioxidant defense, and EO biosynthesis in O. basilicum. Plants were treated with five KN concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, and 10 µM). Morphological traits, gas exchange parameters, chlorophyll fluorescence, and SPAD-based chlorophyll content were measured. Biochemical assays were conducted to assess the antioxidant defense system and the activities of Rubisco, carbonic anhydrase, and nitrate reductase enzymes. Trichome size and area were analyzed microscopically, and EO composition was determined using GC-MS. Results demonstrated that the KN application significantly influenced growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and antioxidant responses. Among the tested concentrations, 5 µM KN was the most effective, leading to increased biomass, enhanced photosynthetic and enzymatic activities, and improved antioxidant defense. Scanning electron microscopy revealed substantial increases in trichome size and area, which correlated positively with EO accumulation. GC-MS analysis further confirmed elevated levels of major bioactive compounds, particularly linalool and methyl chavicol. Collectively, these findings establish KN as a potent regulator of growth and EO biosynthesis in O. basilicum, bridging a key knowledge gap and highlighting its potential in enhancing agronomic productivity and pharmaceutical value. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01749-9.

Expanding the cultivation range of Daodi medicinal materials is crucial for mitigating the shortage of high-quality medicinal resources. Cynanchum auriculatum, a salt- and alkali-tolerant medicinal plant, faces significant cultivation challenges due to soil salinity and alkalinity. This study systematically investigates the physiological, transcriptional, and metabolic responses of C. auriculatum under varying saline and alkaline conditions. We established the species-specific tolerance thresholds at soil salt content < 3.38&#x2030; and pH < 8.16, based on a 50% reduction in fresh weight. Beyond these thresholds, leaf structure and photosynthetic capacity were significantly impaired, with salt exhibiting more severe effects than alkaline conditions. Notably, high salinity essentially enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity, whereas alkaline conditions exacerbated damage. Under supra-threshold conditions, the number of differential metabolites increased, primarily enriched pathways related to phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, flavone and flavonol biosynthesis, and flavonoid biosynthesis. Transcriptomic analysis further revealed that saline and alkaline stress upregulate key genes, including 4CL, COMT, and F5H, leading to elevated levels of critical metabolites such as phenylalanine, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and sinapic acid, thereby enhancing stress tolerance. Importantly, within the identified threshold range, C. auriculatum maintained stable yields, with an increase in differential metabolites. However, exceeding the threshold resulted in a decline in both the number of differential metabolites and overall production. This study provides valuable insights into optimizing the cultivation of C. auriculatum and enhancing its stress tolerance. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01756-w.

Cytokinins (CTKs) regulate both plant development and responses to abiotic stress. The biosynthesis and degradation of CTKs are primarily governed by the isopentenyl transferase (IPT) and cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) gene families, respectively. However, a comprehensive analysis of both gene families in oat (Avena sativa) has not yet been performed. Here, we characterized the AsCKX and AsIPT genes and their encoded proteins. Additionally, we determined the levels of 6 types of endogenous CTKs, and the expression patterns of all AsCKX and AsIPT genes under alkaline and osmotic stresses. Our results showed that AsCKX and AsIPT genes exhibit diverse physicochemical properties and specific secondary and tertiary structures. Phylogenetic and synteny analyses revealed that these genes share high homology with homologs in the rice. Multiple segmental duplication events were identified both within the oat genome and between oat and other species, with clear evidence of positive selection for adaptation to abiotic stresses. Meanwhile, these genes contain various cis-acting elements associated with abiotic stresses. Expression pattern analysis indicated that, at 6&#xa0;h under both alkaline and osmotic stresses, oats may respond to the stress by upregulating AsCKX and downregulating AsIPT genes to reduce the CTK content. With the prolongation of stress duration, differential changes were observed in AsCKX and AsIPT genes between two types of stresses. Interestingly, AsCKX12 was identified as a negative regulator during osmotic stress response. This work lays the groundwork for future comprehensive functional characterization of AsCKX and AsIPT genes in oat under alkaline and osmotic stress conditions. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01793-5.

Abiotic stresses, particularly drought stress, impose a profound adverse effect on plant proliferation and development. Multiple categories of transcription factors have been associated with the modulation of stress responses in plants. CONSTANS, CONSTANS-like and TOC1 (CCT) proteins are transcription factors that contribute significantly to plant resilience under environmental stress, yet little is known about their role in apple and other woody plants. In this study, 28 members of the apple CCT Motif Family (CMF) subfamily, which all contain conserved CCT domains, were identified in the apple genome. qRT-PCR investigation demonstrated that the MdCMF genes were extensively distributed in diverse tissues and organs. Among them, the CO2-responsive CCT protein MdCRCT1 was significantly induced by drought stress, with its transcript level increasing approximately 4-fold at 1&#xa0;h. Overexpression of MdCRCT1 enhanced drought tolerance in both apple calli and Arabidopsis, as evidenced by improved growth and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation under drought stress. This enhanced tolerance was mechanistically linked to the transcriptional upregulation of drought-responsive genes by MdCRCT1 in Arabidopsis, revealing a novel role for this regulator in drought stress adaptation. This study presents the first functional characterization of a CMF gene, MdCRCT1, in woody plants, thereby establishing a foundation for investigating the role of CMF genes in apple under environmental stress. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01778-4.

Calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) is a type of Ca2+- sensitive Ser/Thr protein kinase that plays a role in plant growth, development, and response to stress. However, the function of the CDPK gene family in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) is still unknown. In this study, a total of 16 BvCDPK genes in sugar beet were firstly identified by bioinformatics techniques, and they were unevenly distributed across seven chromosomes. The BvCDPK genes were divided into four clusters (I-IV) by phylogenetic analysis, and members of the same family were found to have similar protein motifs and gene structures. Expression profiling under salt stress via qRT-PCR showed that most BvCDPKs were up-regulated, with BvCDPK8 consistently induced in both roots and leaves. Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants overexpressing BvCDPK8 exhibited significantly improved growth under salt stress, accompanied by increased levels of proline, soluble sugars, and total chlorophyll, enhanced activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and marked reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Furthermore, the expression levels of stress-responsive genes (AtNCED3, AtSOS1, and AtP5CS) were significantly up-regulated in transgenic plants, with AtNCED3 expression in the OE4 line being 3.05-fold higher than in wild-type (WT) plants under 100 mM NaCl. Together, these results demonstrated that BvCDPK8 confers enhanced salt tolerance in A. thaliana, providing a solid foundation for further investigation into its molecular mechanisms. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01759-7.

The inherent complexity and variability of Chinese Herbal Medicine (CHM) components necessitate the implementation of robust and holistic quality control strategies. Fingerprint technology has emerged as a critical tool for this purpose, systematically characterising CHM profiles. This review synthesises the current landscape of fingerprinting, critically evaluating diverse modalities including chemical (e.g., HPLC, GC-MS, FTIR, NMR), DNA, and physical fingerprints. A comprehensive analysis was conducted to elucidate the fundamental principles underpinning these systems, to discern their comparative strengths and weaknesses, and to ascertain their primary applications in the domains of authentication, quality assessment, and origin tracing. Despite the fact that fingerprinting has evolved into a fundamental discipline for CHM quality assurance, with a versatile arsenal of techniques at its disposal, significant challenges persist, notably concerning reproducibility, standardisation, and establishing a robust "spectrum-effect" correlation between chemical profiles and pharmacological efficacy. Moreover, the harmonisation of data across diverse platforms persists as a significant challenge. It is acknowledged that no singular technique can be considered universally superior; consequently, an integrated, multimodal approach is emphasised as being essential. In order to propel the field forward, this review puts forward a roadmap with three key pillars: the development of universal standards, the systematic research of spectrum-effect correlations integrated with multi-omics data, and the facilitation of clinical translation. The ultimate objective is to transition from descriptive quality assessment to predictive standards grounded in therapeutic efficacy, thereby enhancing the safety, effectiveness and global integration of CHM.

Chromium (Cr) is highly toxic to plants, limiting their growth and yield; it further influences the intake and transport of minerals, promotes oxidative stress, and disturbs plant metabolism. Salicylic acid (SA) is a key stress-signalling phytohormone that has been shown to diminish the toxicity of Cr in various species of plants. The present investigation examined the effectiveness of 0.5- and 1-mM SA treatment to ameliorate the impacts of 0.15, 0.3, 1, 2-, and 3-mM Cr stress in Pea (HFP8909) during hydroponic culture. The findings revealed that the presence of SA reduced Cr's harmful effects by enhancing the performance of the antioxidative defense system (Enzymatic: PsSOD, PsCAT, PsAPX, PsGPX, and PsPOX; non-enzymatic: glutathione pool, protein, and phenol content), and by decreasing superoxide radicals and relative membrane permeability. SA treatment in Cr-stressed pea plants boosted the expression of metal chelation-related genes (PsMETII and PsGST), promoting Cr tolerance and decreasing Cr absorption. The expression of photosynthesis-related genes (PsrbcL, PsrbcS, and Pschla/b) was downregulated during Cr stress, but substantially restored by exogenous SA administration. Therefore, the SA treatment may ameliorate Cr toxic effects by restoring the negative impacts of plant development resulting from Cr stress and improving Cr tolerance by altering the expression of metal chelation, photosynthesis, and antioxidant defence-related genes.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is the main protein producer among forage crops. Stem morphology and flowering time represent key traits controlling alfalfa leaf-to-stem ratio, and consequently its, forage nutritive value. Breeding programs for varying flowering timing and stem internode length, including selfing, produced six alfalfa narrow-based 'lines' showing traits like early (EF) and late (LF) flowering, and alfalfa synthetics with divergent stem morphology (long/short internode length, LI vs. SI). Two M. truncatula (Mt) TILLING mutant lines segregating for flowering time were also included. These materials were used to identify the genetic variation (SNPs) underlying these traits using Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS). Fifty-seven SNPs were found differentiating alfalfa EF and LF lines, 13 of which were common to at least two couples and five laying on exons and producing amino acid (a.a.) changes. Forty-nine and sixteen SNPs were detected, differentiating EF and LF individuals in the Mt lines, twenty and seven of which laying on exons and causing amino acid changes. The analysis of LI and SI synthetics identified 14 SNPs one of which bringing to amino acid change. Transcription factors and genes involved in DNA, RNA and protein modification, regulation and remodelling, sugar and lipid biosynthetic pathways were the most represented classes. The functional relationship between nucleus and organelles, in particular chloroplasts, emerged as a key point in defining the different alfalfa earliness profile. Some of the identified genes show a possible correlation with the traits studied; the pentatricopeptide repeat-containing proteins, MtrunA17Chr1g0199691 (flowering time) and MtrunA17Chr3g0128551 (stem morphology) emerge as promising candidates for the Medicago spp. genetic improvement. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01750-2.

Plant secondary metabolites provide a unique basis for medications, flavorings, and industrial biochemicals. These metabolites frequently accumulate in plants exposed to environmental stressors (e.g., drought stress), as a mechanism for adaptation and resistance. Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng is a semi-succulent Lamiaceae species valued for its curative properties and essential oil, the concentration of which is heavily impacted by irrigation levels. This investigation reveals a novel study into the physiological and molecular mechanisms of P. amboinicus by correlating field capacity (FC) levels with metabolite accumulation and specific gene expression. We examined the impact of six irrigation levels (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%; denoted as FC-0 to FC-100) on growth, essential oil (EO) yield, and carvacrol biosynthesis during the 2022 and 2023 seasons. Data revealed that plants subjected to the FC-0 exhibited the lowest growth parameters. However, these plants also presented a higher essential oil percentage and carvacrol concentrations, in addition to an increase in polyphenols and antioxidant enzymes, with greater oxidative substances accumulation (H2O2 and MDA). Moreover, these plants presented higher gene expression of CYP71D178 and CYP71D180 genes. While increasing water level caused an increase in growth parameters, with a decline in the antioxidant activity. Increasing the water level to FC-100 increased the essential oil by approximately four fold but resulted in a decline in carvacrol content as compared to FC-0. Generally, water deficiency reduces crop yield, whereas irrigation increases plant productivity. However, in medicinal and aromatic plants, the relationship is distinct; in Plectranthus amboinicus, water deficiency showed a strong positive correlation with the secondary metabolite's generation. In conclusion, the current report provides for the first time a molecular framework for P. amboinicus by depicting the expression patterns of CYP71D178 and CYP71D180. We revealed that these genes elaborate as the primary molecular shifts regulating carvacrol biosynthesis influenced by specific irrigation levels.

Arabidopsis T&#xf3;xicos en Levadura (ATL) proteins are members of the RING-H2-type E3 ubiquitin ligase subfamily and play important roles in plant physiological processes and stress responses. However, their roles in eggplant (Solanum melongena) remain largely unexplored. In this study, 145 putative SmATL family members were identified and systematically analyzed. Phylogenetic analysis classified them into eight subgroups, and chromosomal mapping revealed their uneven distribution across the eggplant genome. Collinearity analysis identified 37 pairs of collinear genes, while gene structure and motif analyses revealed structural diversity and conserved protein motifs among SmATL members. Under cold stress, transcriptomic analysis showed that several SmATL genes were upregulated, with SmATL59 showing a strong response. qRT-PCR confirmed the gradual induction of SmATL59 during cold treatment. Subcellular localization showed that SmATL59-GFP was mainly localized to the plasma membrane. Overexpression of SmATL59 in Nicotiana benthamiana enhanced cold tolerance, reduced ROS accumulation, increased antioxidant enzyme activities, and upregulated cold-responsive genes. Yeast two-hybrid and luciferase complementation imaging assays demonstrated that SmATL59 interacts with SmATG5a. These results highlight the potential role of SmATL59 in improving cold stress tolerance. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01769-5.

Amino acid permeases (AAPs) are transporters involved in the uptake, transport, and remobilization of amino acids across various plant tissues and play a vital role in nitrogen metabolism and plant development. This review presents recent findings on the function and regulation of AAPs in various plant species, highlighting their roles in seed development, grain yield, grain quality, response to abiotic stresses (e.g., drought, salinity, nutrient stress) and biotic stresses (e.g., nematode infestations, verticillium wilt), source-sink transport, hormonal crosstalk, senescence and N use efficiency (NUE). Functional characterization of AAPs through overexpression and knockout mutants has provided insights into their specific contributions to amino acid homeostasis and stress response. This review aims to unleash the potential of AAPs in improving NUE and crop yield, with future studies focusing on the complex interplay between AAPs, phytohormonal signalling, and metabolic pathways. Profound knowledge of AAP-mediated processes will enhance crop improvement strategies to increase yield and resilience in agricultural systems. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-026-01735-1.