Mycotoxin contamination is an important threat to food and feed safety as well as human and animal health, with particular emphasis on oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, inflammation, and dysbiosis. Mycotoxins represent major health threats because they disturb cellular homeostasis and induce oxidative damage. Nutritional factors, such as dietary antioxidants and bioactive chemicals, can influence the body's reaction to mycotoxin exposure, either reducing or increasing its effects. This study discusses how mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A) induce oxidative stress by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated DNA damage, which induces cellular damage and activates apoptosis, an intended cell death process that is critical for tissue integrity. Furthermore, mycotoxins alter autophagy, a cellular degradation process that can be beneficial or destructive depending on the situation, affecting cell survival. The inflammatory response is particularly important because mycotoxin-induced oxidative stress and cell damage activate inflammatory pathways, which contribute to tissue injury and disease progression. Nutritional factors high in antioxidants, anti-inflammatory substances (Lycopene, Curcumin, Thyme oil, Gum Arabic, and Ginger), probiotics, and prebiotics show potential in mitigating these negative consequences by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Advances in molecular biology and omics technologies (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and single-cell sequencing) can lead to better knowledge of the underlying pathways, allowing for more tailored nutritional recommendations and medicinal interventions. Finally, combining dietary modulation with mycotoxin risk management is a viable path for protecting health and increasing resilience to mycotoxin-related toxicities in animals.
Mycotoxins are one of the biggest threats to global food safety, public health, and economic stability. More than 400 mycotoxins have been found to be secondary metabolites of toxigenic fungi, mostly from the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FBs), patulin (PAT), and T-2/HT-2 toxins are the most dangerous to the health of people and animals. Conventional physical and chemical decontamination methods are only partially effective and can reduce food quality, leave toxic residues, or be too expensive for smallholder food systems. Recent studies have shown that the application of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as a biological detoxification method is a safe, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly option, and has a long history of safe use in fermented foods. Selected strains or taxonomic units have been granted GRAS status by the FDA or QPS (Qualified Presumption of Safety) status by EFSA. However, their use for mycotoxin detoxification still requires strain-level safety assessment and efficacy validation in the intended food matrix. There are several mechanisms by which LAB employ to reduce the bioavailability of mycotoxins in food systems: (i) physical adsorption via cell wall components such as peptidoglycan, teichoic acids, and exopolysaccharides; (ii) enzymatic biotransformation that may produce non-toxic or less-toxic metabolites, though the safety of degradation products requires case-by-case toxicological assessment; (iii) antifungal metabolite production that inhibits fungal growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis; and (iv) competitive exclusion of toxigenic fungi during fermentation. This comprehensive review examines the existing evidence on the detoxification of major food mycotoxins by LAB, with an emphasis on mechanisms, strain-specific efficacy, food-matrix applications, and factors that affect detoxification efficacy. Discussion has also been made of translating in vitro findings to in vivo settings and food-scale applications, alongside regulatory frameworks, current challenges, and future research directions. The review also suggests ways to combine LAB with new technologies, such as encapsulation, genetic engineering, and fermentation optimization, to make food systems safer by synergistically controlling mycotoxins.
Mycotoxins are widespread food contaminants, and urinary biomarkers reflect recent dietary exposure. Although mycotoxins have been implicated in reproductive toxicity, their impact on human oocyte and embryo development remains poorly characterized. This single-center, retrospective observational study investigated the association between urinary mycotoxin exposure, infertility subtypes, and embryo developmental parameters in women undergoing assisted reproductive technology (ART). A total of 124 women undergoing ART cycles between November 2024 and September 2025 were included. Infertile patients were stratified according to infertility diagnosis (endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, poor ovarian response, advanced maternal age, unexplained infertility) and compared with female controls from couples with male-factor infertility. First-morning urine samples collected on the day of oocyte retrieval were analyzed for a panel of 25 mycotoxins using LC-MS/MS. Embryo development was monitored by time-lapse imaging to assess embryo quality and morpho-kinetic parameters. Urinary mycotoxins were frequently detected, with higher detection rates and levels observed in infertile women than controls, and distinct exposure profiles across infertility subtypes. Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) was uniquely associated with impaired blastocyst quality, including reduced expansion and altered inner cell mass and trophectoderm morphology, independently of clinical predictors. Other mycotoxins were associated with alterations in early embryo cleavage kinetics prior to embryonic genome activation, while later developmental timings were unaffected. These findings suggest that dietary mycotoxin exposure may influence early human embryo development in ART, supporting the relevance of environmental biomonitoring in reproductive medicine. Further studies are required to confirm these findings and support future strategies to minimize potential reproductive risks.
For centuries, bee pollen has been known for its medicinal value and regarded as a rich source of bioactive compounds, including essential nutrients and phytochemicals. Its putative therapeutic and health-promoting benefits include antioxidant, antibacterial, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, and numerous additional properties. However, the beneficial qualities can only be guaranteed if potential contaminants do not detract from its superfood image. Recent research has indicated frequent occurrence of mycotoxins in bee pollen, occasionally at concentration levels exceeding safe intakes. There are very few published publications in the literature related to the research of mycotoxin concentrations in bee pollen. Based on that, the aim of this review is to provide an overview update of existing scientific research on the presence, prevalence and types of mycotoxins in bee pollen, with particular emphasis on toxins produced by fungi. Furthermore, the aim is to compile the available data on mycotoxin contamination of pollen in order to identify factors relevant to the safety and quality of bee pollen as a food product and dietary supplement.
The Lebanese diet, rich in cereals, pulses, and dairy, is highly vulnerable to mycotoxin contamination due to the country's temperate climate and humidity. The ongoing economic crisis in Lebanon has intensified food insecurity and malnutrition, increasing health risks related to mycotoxins. A nationally representative cross-sectional study assessed exposure to multiple mycotoxins, including aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2, HT-2, zearalenone (ZEA), and fumonisins (FUM) among 442 Lebanese adolescents (mean age 14.56 years) and related risks, with attention to associations with stunting and thinness. Data were collected via a food frequency questionnaire and 24-h recall, whereas contamination levels were sourced from previous studies. Results showed a stunting prevalence of 4.07% and a thinness at 2.71%, with adolescents consuming an average of 317.56 g/day of cereals. Contamination analysis revealed that AFM1 in dairy products averaged 0.09 μg/kg, exceeding the European limit, and AFB1 in thyme exceeded Lebanese standards at 11.63 μg/kg. Overall, mytotoxin exposure levels were concerning and were associated with MOE values below 10,000, indicating a major public health risk. Notably, AFB1 exposure was linked to additional estimated liver cancer cases per 100,000 people per year. After adjusting for gender, age category, residence, adolescent education, parents' education, and monthly income, stunting was significantly associated with the estimated daily intake of AFB1 (β = -0.07, t = -3.65, p < 0.001), OTA (β = -0.09, t = -4.619, p < 0.001), and DON (β = -0.001, t = -3.373, p = 0.001). Thinness was associated with exposure to all mycotoxins; the strongest were observed for DON, OTA, AFM1, and AFB1. These findings underscore the urgent need for control measures and public health policies to mitigate mycotoxin exposure among Lebanese adolescents.
Mycotoxin contamination remains a major challenge to food safety and agricultural sustainability worldwide. Conventional physical and chemical control measures often show limited effectiveness or raise environmental and safety concerns. This review aims to critically examine recent developments in biological control strategies against mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins, with particular emphasis on formulation approaches, practical challenges, and emerging technologies that influence field performance and large-scale application. This review summarises current knowledge on microbial biological control agents and their mechanisms in suppressing mycotoxigenic fungi and reducing mycotoxin production. Advances in solid and liquid formulation technologies, including encapsulation, carrier selection, and stabilisation techniques, are discussed as key factors determining microbial viability, shelf life, and consistency. Major constraints such as formulation instability, variable field efficacy, regulatory complexity, and market acceptance are highlighted. Recent progress in molecular tools, microbial consortia, and integration with precision agriculture offers promising opportunities to overcome these limitations. Biological control is increasingly recognised as a promising and environmentally compatible approach for mitigating mycotoxin contamination across agricultural production and storage systems, but its success depends strongly on formulation optimisation and system-level integration. Continued interdisciplinary efforts combining formulation science, biotechnology, and supportive regulatory frameworks are essential to translate laboratory success into reliable and scalable solutions for sustainable mycotoxin management.
Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites generated by fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium species pose substantial concerns to food safety, livestock health, and environmental integrity around the world. This paper investigates the critical importance of a comprehensive One Health approach in addressing the widespread problem of mycotoxin contamination in the human, animal, and environmental health sectors. It investigates innovative management strategies to lower mycotoxin production and contamination, such as biocontrol agents, resistant crop types, and improved storage techniques. The review additionally discusses about ways to prevent pests and diseases from spreading based on integrated pest and crop management, as well as laws and rules that make it easier to control them. Most importantly, the article encourages for a One Health approach that motivates microbiologists, agronomists, veterinarians, public health officials, and lawmakers to work together to find long-lasting, cost-effective solutions. Future developments could include the use of omics technology, machine learning, integrating artificial intelligence, nanomaterials, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats Cas12a based biosensors, and blockchain for quick on-site mycotoxin detection, improving the clarity and accuracy of data, and educating and involving people to support best practices. This review brings together what we already know and points out where we need more information. It shows that we need new, collaborative ways to lower the risks of mycotoxins to protect global health, ensure food security, and promote environmentally friendly practices within a One Health framework.
This review aims to critically evaluate sustainable smart sensing technologies and AI-driven platforms for real-time mycotoxin detection, highlighting innovations, integration across the food supply chain, current limitations, and future directions for safer, data-driven food safety management. This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines and covered studies published between 2015 and 2025. Literature searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, IEEE Xplore, and Google Scholar, yielding a total sample of 620 identified records. Peer-reviewed articles on smart sensors, biosensors, and AI-driven mycotoxin monitoring were included. After title, abstract, and full-text screening based on predefined eligibility criteria, approximately 160 studies were retained and formed the final sample for qualitative synthesis across the food supply chain. Sustainable smart sensing and AI-driven platforms are transforming real-time mycotoxin detection across the food supply chain by enabling rapid, sensitive, and decentralized monitoring from farm to fork. Emerging biosensors, optical sensors, and IoT-enabled devices integrated with machine learning improve early warning, traceability, and decision-making. However, key gaps remain, including limited sensor robustness under variable field conditions, high costs of advanced materials, energy demands, and scarcity of large, standardized datasets for AI training. Interoperability between sensing platforms and regulatory frameworks is also underdeveloped. Sustainability challenges involve balancing analytical performance with low-energy operation, sensor recyclability, and accessibility for low-resource settings. Future directions should prioritize biodegradable and reusable sensor materials, edge-AI and low-power electronics, federated data-sharing models, and climate-resilient deployment strategies. Integrating predictive analytics with risk assessment and policy alignment will be essential for scalable, sustainable mycotoxin management systems.
Recently, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) have been proposed as more sustainable substitutes for chemical fungicides; however, their potential in fungicidal and mycotoxin biosynthesis control in food-related pathogens is still under research. In this study, we synthesized and characterized ZnO-NPs with a high degree of crystallinity and antifungal and antimycotoxigenic properties against two significant toxigenic fungi, Aspergillus flavus f10 and Fusarium proliferatum f30, by using a combination of microwave-assisted combustion. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and FTIR analyses confirmed the formation of a hexagonal wurtzite phase, while TEM imaging revealed rod-like ZnO nanostructures with diameters of approximately 70-90 nm and lengths extending up to approximately 700 nm. ZnO-NPs demonstrated high concentration-dependent fungicidal behavior; 150 ppm decreased the growth of A. flavus and F. proliferatum by 75 and 97%, respectively whereas bulk zinc sulfate had no effect. SEM revealed severe morphological damage, such as hyphal shrinkage, disturbed sporulation, and outgrowths. ZnO-NPs nearly completely inhibited aflatoxin biosynthesis (reduced AFB1 and AFG2 by 99-99.9) and partially, but significantly inhibited fumonisin B1 synthesis (reduced by approximately 85%), as confirmed by HPLC-analysis. These findings suggest that ZnO-NPs are an effective nanobased intervention to counter the development of fungal contamination and mycotoxin build-up in maize and other food systems. ZnO-NPs offer a promising platform for improving food safety, minimizing post-harvest losses, and promoting sustainable agriculture by simultaneously addressing the proliferation of pathogens and the production of toxins.
In this work, a multi-mycotoxin analytical method was validated for the determination of 15 mycotoxins and related metabolites in dry herbs commonly used for tea preparation. Samples were extracted using a modified QuEChERS procedure, and quantification was performed by UHPLC-MS/MS using matrix-matched calibration and isotope-labeled internal standards. At the lowest spiking level, recoveries ranged from 82% (AFB1) to 111% (FB3). Repeatability and intermediate precision (RSD) were below 20% for all analytes across the three fortification levels. Ninety-one samples representing 33 types of dry herbs were analyzed, of which 25.3% were positive (≥ LOQ) for at least one mycotoxin. Zearalenone (ZEN) was the most frequently detected analyte (13.2%), followed by fumonisin B2 (FB2, 4.4%), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, 3.3%), and ochratoxin A (OTA, 3.3%). A chronic dietary risk assessment for FB2 and total zearalenone (tZEN = ZEN + α-zearalenol) indicated no health concern for tea consumers, with estimated intakes not exceeding 5% of the established PMTDI/TDI.
Mycotoxins remain a persistent threat to the safety and quality of cereal grains and other agricultural products, and their impact on human health continues to raise global concerns. In many situations, the practices traditionally used to control these toxins are no longer sufficiently effective. They can be costly, difficult to implement on a large scale, and, in some cases, create environmental drawbacks. As cereal products move through the supply chain, the need for faster and more sensitive detection tools, more reliable detoxification options, and practical postharvest preventive measures has become increasingly clear. This review scrutinizes recent advances in biotechnology- and nanotechnology-based approaches, focusing on their superior environmental sustainability compared to classical methods. Specifically, it evaluates how nanoparticle-assisted biosensors and advanced spectroscopic techniques significantly enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of mycotoxin monitoring systems. Biological and nanocatalytic detoxification methods, which provide milder and more environmentally friendly modes of action, are also discussed. In addition, advances in active and smart packaging are considered, especially their potential to limit fungal growth and prevent recontamination during storage and distribution. Taken together, these developments suggest that combining high-performance analytical tools with emerging bio-nano solutions could support more effective and sustainable mycotoxin management throughout the cereal supply chain. © 2026 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
Multiple mycotoxins in feed threaten animal health and food safety, demanding sustainable mitigation strategies. This study evaluated acid-modified mangosteen peel (AMP), an agricultural by-product, as a potential multi-mycotoxin adsorbent. Physicochemical characterization using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses demonstrated that acid modification increased surface area (1.9 to 9.03 m2/g), pore volume (0.005 to 0.027 cm3/g), and surface negativity, indicating enhanced adsorption properties. In vitro binding experiments assessed adsorption of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) under different pH conditions. AMP exhibited high adsorption efficiencies for AFB1, ZEA, OTA, and T-2 toxin, particularly at pH 3, whereas DON and FB1 showed limited binding. Adsorption behavior was dose-dependent and best described by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. Simulated gastrointestinal digestion indicated stable binding of AFB1 and ZEA under gastric conditions, with partial release of some toxins at neutral pH. Cytotoxicity assessment in porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC J2) showed no apparent cytotoxic effects at 0.25-1 mg/mL. Therefore, AMP demonstrated improved multi-mycotoxin adsorption compared to the untreated material and showed no apparent cytotoxic effects in vitro within the tested concentration range, indicating its potential as a promising feed additive candidate.
Contamination of feed with mycotoxins and the intensive use of therapeutic antibiotics in modern poultry farming have resulted in the accumulation of chemical residues in meat and the environment. These residues may contribute to hepatic, renal, and cardiac dysfunctions, leading to significant public-health concerns. Despite growing awareness and extensive studies on individual poultry contaminants, comprehensive molecular-level assessments of all our selected compounds are still limited. Integrated computational analyses combining density functional theory (DFT), molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET), and prediction of activity spectra for substances (PASS) evaluations to disclose their multi-organ toxic mechanisms also remain scarce. This study was designed to evaluate the hepatic, renal, and cardiac toxicity of selected mycotoxins and therapeutic antibiotics through a computational framework. Molecular geometries and electronic properties were assessed using DFT calculations. As per DFT results, ZER, CIP, ENR, and OTA showed better thermodynamic stability due to higher HOMO-LUMO energy gap; and exhibited higher dipole moments in AB1 (8.26 Debye), CIP (9.70 Debye), ENR (9.80 Debye), and OXY (6.89 Debye). The lower HOMO-LUMO energy gap indicates that these compounds have higher chemical reactivity. Molecular docking result revealed strong binding affinities (ranging from -7.5 kcal mol-1 to -9.4 kcal mol-1) within selected ligands and proteins, while MD simulation confirmed stable protein-ligand interactions. Additionally, ADMET and PASS prediction elucidated the potential nephrotoxicity (ENR +0.37, OXY +0.87, and OTA +0.72); hepatotoxicity (ENR +0.94, OXY +0.61, and OTA +0.49); and myocarditis (ENR +0.28, OXY +0.92, and OTA +0.35). Overall, our findings highlighted the potential health risks posed by mycotoxin residues and therapeutic antibiotics used in poultry farms.
Mycotoxin contamination in wheat is strongly influenced by weather conditions, yet how contamination may evolve under future climate and socioeconomic change remains poorly understood at the European scale. Here, we develop a hybrid modelling framework combining machine learning and crop phenology to assess scenario-dependent changes in mycotoxin contamination. The framework integrates historical monitoring data with climate projections under multiple Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. Model evaluation shows strong performance for low-contamination conditions, while the ability to distinguish higher contamination levels remains limited due to class imbalance. Results indicate an overall increase in contamination risk under climate change, particularly for deoxynivalenol (DON), with relatively higher risk in coastal and northwestern Europe. These findings highlight the role of climate-driven shifts in crop phenology and weather conditions, and provide a scenario-based framework for exploring future mycotoxin risk patterns rather than precise quantitative predictions.
RNA interference (RNAi) technology has been widely used to protect plants from pests and diseases. Fusarium graminearum causes Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat and barley, which not only results in grain yield losses, but also threatens food safety due to mycotoxin contamination of grains. F. graminearum trichothecene (TRI) genes are required for trichothecene biosynthesis. Our recent study showed that TRI5 is critical for NX trichothecene production during F. graminearum infection of barley heads. To reduce mycotoxin contamination and disease using RNAi, we generated a hairpin construct targeting the TRI5 gene and introduced it into the NX-producing F. graminearum strain NRRL44211. Compared to 44211, TRI5 RNAi mutants had significantly reduced TRI5 expression and NX toxin production in vitro. Barley heads inoculated with TRI5 RNAi mutants or 44211 showed similar disease levels, however, barley heads inoculated with TRI5 RNAi mutants had significantly reduced NX toxin compared to 44211-inoculated heads. Therefore, a plant RNAi vector targeting the same TRI5 RNAi region was generated and introduced into the barley cv Golden Promise. FHB virulence assays showed that both FHB severity and NX-3 were significantly reduced in TRI5 RNAi transgenic lines compared to controls. Small RNA (sRNA) sequencing of both F. graminearum TRI5 RNAi mutants and barley TRI5 RNAi lines revealed small RNA reads that mapped to the TRI5 sequence, and the sRNA mapping patterns were remarkably similar in Fusarium and barley. Our results indicate that TRI5 can serve as an effective RNAi target to reduce mycotoxin contamination and improve food safety.
Indigenous fermented foods are rich sources of functionally diverse lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and associated microorganisms with relevance to food safety, health promotion and sustainable bioprocessing. This study aimed to evaluate the probiotic potential of bacterial isolates recovered from selected Nigerian fermented foods. Bacterial isolates were molecularly identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and evaluated for probiotic attributes, including stress tolerance, safety, antimicrobial activity and functional bioactivity. Selected strains were further validated in vivo using Drosophila melanogaster. The isolates included classical LAB (Lactobacillus fermentum PZ070868, Lactococcus lactis PZ070869 and Weissella confusa PZ070870) as well as non-LAB species such as (Lysinibacillus fusiformis PZ070871 and Priestia flexa PZ070873) which were serendipitously identified, likely reflecting the diverse microbial ecology of foods, while Enterococcus gallinarum (PZ070872), phylogenetically related to LAB, was assessed separately due to safety considerations. The isolates exhibited strain-dependent antibacterial and antifungal activities against foodborne and pathogenic microorganisms, presented as mean ± SD (n = 5, mm), with statistically significant differences among strains (p < 0.05). Notably, cell-free supernatants of P. flexa (32.00 ± 1.58) and L. fermentum (30.40 ± 0.89) showed the highest inhibition against Aspergillus fumigatus, demonstrating antifungal activity with potential implications for reducing mycotoxin risk. Moderate antifungal efficacy against Candida albicans, Fusarium solani, Aspergillus flavus and F. solani was observed with E. gallinarum (23.20 ± 1.30), L. fusiformis (21.60 ± 1.14), P. flexa (17.80 ± 1.30) and W. confusa (20.40 ± 1.14), while W. confusa and L. lactis exhibited more selective inhibition. Antibacterial activity for L. fermentum (17.4 ± 2.3) showed the highest inhibition against Klebsiella pneumoniae, L. lactis (16.0 ± 1.0) against Staphylococcus aureus and E. gallinarum (15.8 ± 1.9) against Proteus mirabilis, with moderate inhibition observed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and Listeria monocytogenes. In vivo validation further supported the biological relevance of these findings, with L. fermentum and W. confusa providing notable host protection. Beyond health functionality, L. fermentum (PZ070868) extended the shelf life of zobo beverage by 17-21 days, demonstrating potential as natural biopreservatives. Collectively, this study integrates probiotic screening, antimicrobial and antifungal activity, in vivo validation and food preservation, the study investigates microbial isolates from fermented foods, including both LAB and non-LAB species, while probiotic assessment primarily focuses on LAB strains, to present a scalable probiotic-postbiotic platform for enhancing food safety, functional food development and potential for mitigating mycotoxin risks.
Background: Exposure to anthropogenic and/or natural (e.g., herbicides or mycotoxins) endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) has been linked to several reproductive disorders. Glyphosate (GLY), a common agricultural agent, is a potential element of the exposome that bioaccumulates and has potential endocrine and oxidative stress-related effects. However, data on its presence in the human ovarian microenvironment remain limited. Our study examined GLY levels in follicular fluid (ff) and serum and their relationships with oxidative stress markers, reproductive hormones, and stress hormones in women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF). Methods: 50 women undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation participated. Serum and ff samples were routinely collected during oocyte retrieval. GLY, related hormones (e.g., cortisol, estradiol-E2, anti-Müllerian hormone-AMH, and melatonin-MT), an oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde (MDA), antioxidant enzyme activities, total antioxidant capacity, and co-occurring natural pollutant mycotoxin levels were measured. Relationships between GLY levels and these mediators were assessed using correlation and regression analyses. Results: GLY was detected in both serum and ff at similar concentrations (0.038 ± 0.006 ng/mL vs. 0.045 ± 0.006 ng/mL; p = 0.414). Follicular GLY levels showed a positive association with MDA (Spearman's r = 0.4487, p < 0.001), explaining 28.6% of the variability in follicular MDA. Serum GLY was positively associated with serum (β = 40.26, p = 0.0058) and follicular E2 (r = 0.29, p = 0.042). Serum GLY levels were negatively correlated with cortisol (β = -0.0188, p = 0.020). A slight correlation between follicular GLY and MT was observed (p = 0.03). No associations were found between GLY levels and age, body mass index, AMH, the recombinant gonadotropin dose used, antioxidant enzyme activities, follicle count, oocyte yield, or embryo viability. Conclusions: This study might be the first to demonstrate the presence of GLY of exposome in human ff, indicating that environmental exposure to GLY may reach the oocyte microenvironment. The correlation with lipid peroxidation suggests GLY could contribute to follicular oxidative stress. The associations with E2 and cortisol point to potential endocrine-disrupting effects. While no direct impact on IVF outcomes was observed, findings suggest low-level exposure to GLY could influence ovarian physiology through specific biochemical mechanisms.
A screening of commercial dog and cat foods revealed considerable variation in metabolite profiles across feed categories, with standard feeds generally showing higher concentrations of Fusarium metabolites, phytoestrogens, and plant metabolites than specialized senior or intestinal diets. Concentrations of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON) DON, zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisin B1 + 2 (FB1 + FB2), and T-2/HT-2 toxins remained below existing guidance values and maximum limits. In vitro assays using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from dogs and cats demonstrated marked interspecies differences in mycotoxin sensitivity. Feline PBMCs were more susceptible to proliferation inhibition by DON and especially ZEN than canine PBMCs, consistent with known species-specific differences in xenobiotic metabolism. The potency ranking of tested compounds in dogs was in line with reports from other species, with T-2 toxin showing the highest cytotoxicity (EC50 < 0.1 µM). Analysis of feed and blood samples indicated that systemic exposure to DON and ZEN under practical feeding conditions was several orders of magnitude below in vitro EC50 values, suggesting limited direct cytotoxic risk. Nonetheless, the presence of multiple mycotoxins in all feed categories underscores the need for continued surveillance and further studies linking feed composition, toxin occurrence, and toxicological thresholds to better inform companion animal health risk assessments.
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a mycotoxin, is one of the most toxic and carcinogenic compounds of common pollutants in crops. Taking the liver as the main target organ, AFB1 has strong carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic effects, which can lead to oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, gene mutation, and immune system damage. It is a major hidden danger for feed and food safety and a serious threat to animal and human health. Programmed cell death (PCD), such as apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis, is an active and orderly death process regulated by genes, which is essential for the development, homeostasis maintenance, and disease defense of multicellular organisms. Increasing evidence shows that PCD plays a key role in the occurrence and development of AFB1 poisoning. Existing studies have shown that AFB1 exposure can induce oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, metabolic disorders, inflammatory signal activation, and other multiple mechanisms, dysregulate or activate a variety of PCD pathways, thereby causing injury and dysfunction of multiple organs, especially the liver, kidney, nerve, and reproductive system.
Competitive immunoassays for small molecules are limited by complex antigen synthesis and multistep signal transduction. Here, the anti-idiotypic nanobody was employed to enable eco-friendly detection. Furthermore, dual-label protein nanoscaffolds were used to achieve the design of programmable dual-functional antigen substitutes and one-step signal transduction in immunoassays. To determine the application potential, the pattern target zearalenone (ZEN) was selected as a case in this study. In detail, anti-idiotypic nanobody Z6 has been reported as a ZEN biosynthesis mimic. The Z6SC3-ST3IDT-DCN (Z6-SpyCatcher003-SpyTag003-IMX313-DogTag-DogCatcher-NanoLuc) was constructed to achieve the one-step bioluminescence detection of ZEN. To further streamline the workflow, we developed a magnetic-bead-based bifunctional programmable scaffold bioluminescent enzyme immunoassay (Mb-BPs-BLEI) using Z6SC3-ST3IDT-DCN, achieving a detection limit of 0.1 ng/mL for ZEN. This dual-tag design allows the modular replacement of recognition or signaling elements, providing a programmable platform for customizable immunoassays.