Sir Arthur William Mickle Ellis (1883-1966) was born, raised and educated in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He had a distinguished medical career in North America and Europe which spanned important developments in medical research and education and culminated in appointment as Regius Professor of Medicine at Oxford University. He was a resident physician at the newly created Hospital of the Rockefeller Institute before the start of World War I. Serving with the Canadian Army Medical Corps in England, and responsible for the care of soldiers taken sick with highly virulent cerebrospinal meningitis, Ellis attempted an ambitious therapy and undertook laboratory investigations that impacted management of the disease directly. After the war, he became the Director of the Medical Unit and the first Professor of Medicine in the University of London at the London Hospital, and subsequently Regius Professor of Medicine in Oxford in World War II. As a research-driven academic physician, the career of Sir Arthur Ellis was influenced profoundly by Sir William Osler (1849-1919), the first Canadian to hold the position of Regius Professor in Oxford.
The aim of this article is to investigate the professional, corporate and scientific career of the Girona surgeon José Pascual y Prats (1854-1931). His work at the Provincial Hospital of Santa Catalina in Girona and as dean of the provincial charitable medical corps should be highlighted, as should his presidency of the province's medical associations, and his creation and direction of the bulletins of both organisations, as well as his promotion of the Index Medicus Hispanus. Therefore, his biography allows us to consider three fundamental aspects of medical science during the Spain of the Restoration: associations, press and bibliography. At the same time, he maintained epistolary contacts with his family and friends, as well as with different representatives of the social elites of Girona and the Catalan and Spanish medical oligarchy. In short, Pascual was the most important physician of this period in the city and one of the most remarkable health professionals of contemporary Catalonia.
Isaac al-Israelī (died early ninth century AD) was a Jewish physician. He is known for writing important works in many different fields such as medicine, philosophy, pharmacology, botany, and Jewish theology. He was a court physician as the chief physician during the rule of the Aghlebids and Fatimids in North Africa. He ensured the systematization and institutionalization of the first medical school established in Qayrawān under the name of Bayt al-Hikma. Israelī was considered an authority in the field of medicine in Qayrawān and is known for his major works in this field. Many of his works were translated into Latin, Hebrew, English and Spanish over time and were first translated into Latin by Constantinus Africanus (died 1082 AD) in 1082. Thanks to these translations, Israel's medical works reached Europe via Sicily and were used as textbooks in the medical school of Salerno (The Schola Medica Salernitana). Moreover, his works continued to be taught with interest in many European universities until the 17th century.In this study, the contributions of a Jewish scholar who continued his medical career in the Islamic development of medicine in North Africa, and in the establishment of a medical school there.
The history of medicine as a component of the medical school curriculum has been a long-standing subject of debate and controversy. Ultimately, local factors may determine this experience and be aligned with or outside of the curriculum. The opportunity at Tulane University School of Medicine is long-standing and successful. It came to fruition through the efforts of Benjamin Bernard Weinstein, MD. A native New Orleanian, he received his undergraduate (1933) and medical (1937) degrees from Tulane as well as his training in obstetrics and gynaecology. He then joined the faculty and remained there until 1953 when he entered private practice with an interest in reproductive medicine. Weinstein was internationally known in the field, travelling the globe as a prominent educator and intersecting with world leaders. But his passion was the Tulane History of Medicine Society, founded by Weinstein in 1933 as a medical student. He became its guiding force and benefactor and built the foundation that remains highly relevant and successful 91 years later with a lengthy list of distinguished Weinstein Lecturers annually. Following his death in 1974, his family has continued to engage and support the Society. Weinstein's legacy of an enriched life through the study and knowledge of the history of medicine continues through the Society.
The physician, activist, essayist, radical free thinker, polyglot and first African American medical graduate James McCune Smith has for long been a forgotten figure. Despite extensive writings, a lack of oratory skills, when compared with those of his contemporaries, had relegated him to a lesser place in the pantheon of the abolitionist movement and overdue recognition. His education at Glasgow University provided a knowledge he applied not only to his medical practice and publications but also in his wider writings. In championing equality, emancipation and the abolition of slavery McCune Smith did not hold back in calling out pomposity, inaccuracy and the misrepresentation of facts by others, irrespective of their position or prominence. His forensic approach and knowledge of the medical literature of the times were evident from his student days to the last essays. This article addresses the formative years, exile in Glasgow to achieve the education denied in his homeland and his return to New York as a newly qualified physician.
Having gained his medical education at Glasgow University, McCune Smith returned to New York City to establish himself. Difficulties in his acceptance were evidenced by the New York Academy of Medicine's refusal of membership and the New York Medical and Surgical Society preventing him from presenting in person at a meeting. He can claim the first peer-reviewed publication and presentation by an African American physician and interacted with both the elite of New York's medical establishment and his unqualified fellow African American colleagues. Whilst writing and lecturing on a range of medical topics, his most memorable achievements lie in the essays on climate, longevity, racial equality and civilisation. In each, he showed a mastery of quantitative analysis, physiology, comparative anatomy and the medical textbooks of the time. It is not just as a physician and pharmacist that he should be remembered but also as the foremost black social scientist of his era with an enquiring analytical approach learnt from and revealed in his Glasgow years. This article will examine his medical practice and writings as well as those essays that displayed his scientific knowledge.
Lorenzo Martini (1785-1844) was a physician devoted to promoting hygiene and preventive health. He combined clinical practice with public engagement and relied on both documentary records and debates to shape his practical advice. After a brief biographical profile, we turn to a close reading of the hygiene section of his Manuals of Hygiene and Medical Police (1835) and we examine how that part seeks to disseminate concrete hygienic practices among the population. The study rests on the original 19th-century edition of the Manual as a primary source, with other primary documents in the Historical Archives of the University of Turin and the State Archives of Genoa, and it is supported by secondary sources that help reconstruct Martini's life and situate his ideas within the medical culture of his time. Martini presents prevention as the primary route to protect health, and he argues that the best way to avoid or at least reduce the risk of chronic diseases is to maintain a general state of balance across all aspects of life, including daily habits, environment, diet. Traces of miasmatic and humoral theories of Hippocratic and Galenic origin remain in Martini's thought, showing how emergent preventive ideas coexisted with older medical doctrines.
Karl Jarmer was the first professor of dentistry at the Medical Academy in Dresden (Germany). This article chronicles his life, his professional challenges, and the impact of his work, illustrated by theses, articles, books, and original sources from the archives of the Dresden University of Technology's Medical Faculty. His career encompassed a range of experiences, from running a private practice in Stettin to specializing in oral surgery. After serving in the First World War, his academic journey began with the completion of his dental license and doctorate in 1921. Later, he worked at the universities of Greifswald and Kiel before being appointed to the Chair of Dentistry in Dresden in 1954. His appointment triggered a professional rivalry with Johann Alexander Vogelsang, a key figure in Dresden's maxillofacial care, due to conflicting views on academic leadership. Jarmer made significant contributions to the development of dental education in Dresden and played an important role in shaping Dentistry at the young Medical Academy Dresden. Jarmer remained active in academic circles until his retirement in 1963. He died in 1983.
The story of John Elmer Weeks (1853-1949) is as impressive as it is inspiring. Based on a New Year's resolution with a friend, Weeks decided to pursue a career in medicine and worked as a full-time mechanic to fund his medical school preparation and admissions process. The field of ophthalmology, and the study of medicine at large, has much to thank for that fateful New Year's resolution. From culturing the Koch-Weeks bacillus, the causative agent of a form of infectious conjunctivitis, to publishing a landmark textbook titled "A Treatise on Diseases of the Eye," Weeks has left his mark on the study of ophthalmology and medicine. Despite all these accomplishments, what may be most impressive is Weeks' admirable sense of humility. Dr David W. E. Baird, the Dean of the University of Oregon Medical School, wrote about Dr Weeks: "It would be well for every medical student and every young doctor to learn as much as possible about Dr Weeks and to emulate his high qualities." This biography, based on Weeks' autobiography and archival materials at the Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU), aims to accomplish Dr Baird's wish.
IntroductionIn 1744, the English physician Thomas Reeve ('T.R.', b.1700-1780) published two proposals for controlled trials of tar water treatment, a 'universal' medication promoted by Bishop George Berkeley (1685-1753).MethodsQualitative analysis of historical medical texts.ResultsIn his 'defence of physick', Reeve questions Berkeley's clinical evidence and calls for a 'fair experiment' with a 'competent number' of patients (i.e. 20), half of whom should receive tar water. Participants should be 'of the same Age, Sex, Constitution and Country, of the same way of living, and of the same Temperament'. Treatment must be 'at the same Time and Place', circumstances employed in Lind's 1747 scurvy trial. Reeve also proposes a simple two-patient trial to compare smallpox treatment with and without tar water.DiscussionIt is tempting to see Reeve's proposals as an influence upon James Lind's 1747 scurvy trial. Evidence that could support this lies in Lind's consideration of both tar water and Berkeley's book within his 1753 treatise on scurvy. Likewise, Reeve's call to keep a 'faithful register' of clinical outcomes offers a possible link with Hauksbee the Younger's 1743 proposal for an 'experimentum crucis' of treatments for venereal disease. The contribution of Thomas Reeve to the development of controlled trials (including the 'morality' of withholding effective treatment) deserves greater recognition.
In a diverse career Sibson performed some of the earliest saline infusions for cholera, some of the first experiments with curare and its possible use in rabies and he was among the first British authors to distinguish between typhoid and typhus. He published on respiratory physiology and mechanisms of respiration and on the anatomy of the chest and abdominal viscera including the changes caused by movement and disease. He investigated the use of ether and chloroform to treat neuralgia, probably practised surgical anaesthesia and sat on a commission investigating the safety of chloroform. His interests later changed to cardiac disease, especially pericarditis, endocarditis and aortic aneurysms. His membership of medical societies led to an involvement in medical politics, such as the conditions of service of army and poor law doctors, the sale of arsenic, reform of the membership of the General Medical Council and The Nomenclature of Disease which was an early and very successful attempt at the classification of diseases. He was invited to give evidence to a Royal Commission on vivisection and sat on several government committees and enquiries including the siting and design of infectious diseases and Poor Law hospitals and the Metropolitan District Asylums Board.
Antonio de Tornay has been a subject of study in the last decade, in particular his medical work designed to treat the ailments of García Álvarez de Toledo, 1st Duke of Alba. Of the series of texts written for this purpose, the one named Opúsculo de cozinas stands out. It is an ambitious project that completes a consilium and a regimen sanitatis written previously for the same figure. The brief treatise was originally divided into five parts, but only the first one, on the subject of different types of meat, survives. It includes a brief section on the way to carve meat in the French style. The objective of this study is to reconstruct the intellectual figure of Tornay and analyse his work from a medical and a historical perspective. These texts, far from anecdotal, exemplify some fundamental types of Hippocratic-Galenic medicine in the vernacular, aimed at treating specific ailments by adapting them to the needs of the courtly elites.
Dr Konstantin Omiros Kalangos, a specialist in internal medicine, was well known in Yeşilköy, a district of Istanbul, for providing long-term care and offering free treatment to patients with limited financial means. His family background included multiple individuals across generations who received medical training and practiced medicine. During the period from the 1950s to the 2000s, when he practiced in Yeşilköy, he treated thousands of patients in the ground-floor clinic of his family's residence. In an era increasingly dominated by technological diagnostics, he maintained that medical assessment was impossible without physical contact, placing the physical examination and direct physician-patient interaction at the centre of diagnosis. Oral history interviews conducted in Yeşilköy repeatedly highlight his compassion, clinical expertise, and ethical commitment; many residents remember him as a physician who embodied the values associated with the Hippocratic Oath. This study examines the life, professional practice, and cultural impact of Dr Kalangos. It draws on materials from the Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye, the Directorate of State Archives, the Ottoman Archives (BOA), the Ayastefanos Greek Church Archives, family papers, oral history interviews, patient ledgers, handwritten medical lecture notes, and relevant secondary literature.
IntroductionPeter Shaw (1694-1763) was an English physician who practised in London and Scarborough, Yorkshire. He was appointed physician to Kings George II and III. Shaw published many medical texts as well as translations of Lord Francis Bacon and Robert Boyle.MethodHistorical examination of Shaw's text A Treatise of Incurable Diseases (1723).ResultsShaw states that 'incurable' conditions offer an opportunity to examine the cause of disease and its treatment. He proposes a model for a comparative trial of 'antidote' for hydrophobia (rabies) in one of two dogs and - if successful - in humans.ConclusionShaw's proposal is an early model for translational medical research from animals to humans to ensure effectiveness and safety. The evidence suggests that Shaw's was an inspiration for Hauksbee the Younger's 1743 proposed 'experimentum crucis' of venereal disease treatments. That is because in 1731 they co-authored 'An Essay for Introducing a Portable Laboratory'. Furthermore, Hauksbee reveals that Shaw was actively involved in early enquiries into the efficacy of his venereal medication. Due to shared roots in Lichfield and an interest in spa water treatment, the authors conjecture that Shaw's comparative approach might have roots in Sir John Floyer's 1702 controlled trial of cold-water on athleticism.
IntroductionLord Francis Bacon's (1561-1626) was fascinated by the phenomenon of 'putrefaction', which he saw in 'moulds' on food, 'mosse…of the Earth, and Trees' and the process of disease in living creatures. By observing the development of mould, Bacon deduced that certain 'aires' and 'seats' (places) were more healthy than others.AimTo interpret Bacon's ideas about putrefaction.MethodQualitative examination of Bacon's texts, especially 'Sylva Sylvarum'.ResultsBacon proposes comparing the speed of putrefaction between pieces of 'raw flesh' of the 'same Kinde and Bignesse' in different settings: 'within Doores' and 'abroad [outside]' as well as 'some height above the Earth' and 'upon the Flat [i.e. surface] of the Earth'. Thus, Bacon sought to identify more healthy 'seats of dwelling' …'for [residential] Lodges, and Retiring Places for Health'.ConclusionBacon's experiments represent early landmarks in two fields of medical research: evidence-based public health measures to improve housing and (by calculating 'post-mortem interval') forensic pathology. These contributions appear to have been overlooked, despite informing Sir John Pringle's 1752 treatise on military medicine. Bacon called for 'new learning' and his forensic approach highlights a need to engender the 'medical detective' in modern students of medicine.
Marcello Malpighi is widely recognized as the founder of microscopic anatomy. His seminal discoveries of the pulmonary alveoli, blood capillaries, and renal glomeruli revolutionized existing medical knowledge, earning him fame and international recognition. He discovered the respiratory system of insects and described, for the first time, their excretory apparatus. He laid the foundations of modern embryology by characterizing the early stages of organ development in the chick embryo and was among the first to study the anatomy and biology of plants. Malpighi also faced family challenges, including his younger brother's involvement in a homicide, and relentless attacks by followers of traditional medicine. The purpose of this paper is to revisit Malpighi's extraordinary life and works, focusing on his struggles with detractors, who questioned the usefulness of his microscopic observations and resisted the new ideas of modern medicine.
Ageism toward older adults is a global concern with significant negative effects on both individuals and society, leading to early loss of independence, increased disability, and higher mortality rates among older adults. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of biographicay intervention on reducing ageism among coronary care unit (CCU) nurses. This randomized controlled trial with a pretest-posttest design was conducted on 65 nurses working in CCUs in Mashhad, Iran. Participants were selected through convenience sampling, and hospitals were randomly assigned as intervention and control groups. Both groups received in-person training on the concept of ageism and positive aging. In the intervention group, the researcher conducted interviews with hospitalized older adults over six weeks to gather biographical information, which was then shared with the nurses. Before and after the intervention, participants completed the Ageism Scale for Nurses in Hospital Environments. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 22. No significant difference in ageism scores was observed between the intervention and control groups before the intervention. However, after the intervention, a statistically significant reduction in ageism scores was observed in the intervention group compared to the control group (p < 0.001). The biographical intervention effectively reduced ageism among CCU nurses. Increased knowledge of the various dimensions of older adults' lives seems to have positively influenced nurses' attitudes and fostered appropriate interactions, ultimately facilitating care and treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The article was registered by the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials under number IRCT20220522054956N1, date of registration 2022/07/02.
Eugène Hertoghe (1860-1928), a Belgian internist and former vice-president of the Royal Academy of Medicine of Belgium, made significant contributions to the understanding and treatment of chronic hypothyroidism. He provided a detailed clinical description of the condition, emphasizing its multisystemic manifestations and hereditary aspects. Hertoghe also documented the therapeutic use of thyroid extract, reporting its effectiveness in alleviating symptoms of hypothyroidism. Among his contributions, he described the "Hertoghe sign," a rare clinical feature characterized by the loss of the outer third of the eyebrows, commonly associated with myxoedema, as well as with cases of toxic poisoning, infections, and atopic dermatitis.
Danish polymath Niels Stensen journeyed to the Dutch Republic (1660) to further his medical studies. While staying with Blasius in Amsterdam, he made an important discovery in the anatomy of the parotid duct: the ductus Stenonianus. Blasius later took credit, leading to a dispute won by Stensen. Realising he could learn little in Amsterdam, Stensen moved to Leiden University (July 1660). Here, he studied under renowned professors Sylvius and van Horne and became friends with talented fellow students Swammerdam, Ruysch, and de Graaf, who significantly contributed to anatomy and reproductive medicine. Stensen discovered various anatomical and physiological aspects, leading to his doctorate from Leiden. Here, he met Spinoza and maintained correspondence with him. Stensen left Leiden (1664), spending time in Paris, and moved to Florence (1666), joining the Accademia del Cimento. His interests expanded from anatomy to geology; he converted to Catholicism (1667), was ordained as a priest (1675) and became bishop. His ecclesiastical duties took him to Germany, where he lived a life of asceticism, dying in 1686. His remains were moved to Florence and buried in the Basilica of San Lorenzo. Stensen's journey reflects a commitment to knowledge and spirituality, making him a figure of intellectual and religious significance.
Dr William Reginald Morse, a Canadian physician, anatomist, and physical anthropologist, was a central figure in advancing medical education and anthropological research in Western China during the early twentieth century. As a medical missionary, he co-founded West China Union University, the first modern medical school in the region, where he served as dean and professor of anatomy for many years. Beyond his educational contributions, Morse established the West China Border Research Society, which focused on studying the region's politics, cultures, customs, and environment. As the Society's inaugural president, he championed interdisciplinary research in an area previously underexplored by Western scholars. Collaborating closely with Harvard University's Hooton Laboratory, Morse conducted extensive anthropological fieldwork in the borderlands, collecting valuable data on the diverse populations of the region. The renowned anthropologist D. C. Graham praised Morse as a trailblazer in the study of the West China frontier and a leading figure in physical anthropology, Chinese medicine, and medical education. Morse's endeavors not only deepened the understanding of Western China's unique cultural and social landscape but also positioned him as a pioneer at the intersection of medicine and anthropology.