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Journal of Women's HealthVol. 29, No. 4 CommentaryFree AccessSex and Gender Disparities in the COVID-19 PandemicJewel Gausman and Ana LangerJewel GausmanWomen & Health Initiative, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts.Search for more papers by this author and Ana LangerAddress correspondence to: Ana Langer, MD, Women & Health Initiative, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 651 Huntington Avenue, FXB Building 6th Floor Office 643B, Boston, MA 02115 E-mail Address: [email protected]Women & Health Initiative, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts.Search for more papers by this authorPublished Online:17 Apr 2020https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2020.8472AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookXLinked InRedditEmail In the case of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, sex-disaggregated data suggest that fewer women are dying from the disease than men.1 However, taking this observation at face value oversimplifies the biological, behavioral, and social and systemic factors that may cause differences to emerge with regard to how women and men experience both the disease and its consequences. As governments react with swift and severe measures in their ongoing fight to control the pandemic's spread, it is important to understand how these actions may disproportionately increase the risks for women both directly and indirectly with regard to sex and gender.Pregnant women are often among the most vulnerable groups during public health emergencies. In some cases, pregnant women face increased biological susceptibility to adverse health outcomes, as in the case of some respiratory infections. With other emergent coronaviruses, such as those responsible for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS), pregnant women who became infected were found to be more likely than nonpregnant women to experience severe complications.2 It is still too early to tell whether this will be the case with COVID-19.In the ongoing pandemic, other factors may have a ripple effect that put women at increased risk even if the disease itself does not. As made clear during the 2014 Ebola outbreak, the consequences of large-scale infectious disease outbreaks on uninfected pregnant women can be dire. Routine prenatal care appointments, if not interrupted or discontinued, may put women at increased risk of exposure to the virus. Overwhelmed hospitals struggling to function with staff and supply shortages may not be able to provide the high quality of care that all pregnant women and their newborns deserve, let alone respond to emergency obstetric complications. Furthermore, there is also a risk that life-saving treatments or vaccines will be denied to pregnant women over concern for fetal safety or a lack of data.3,4The fear of infection, concern for the well-being of friends and loved ones, uncertainty, disruption, and social isolation that have become part and parcel of daily life for many around the world will undoubtedly have profound effects on mental health on the population at large, but being pregnant during a global pandemic is likely to be even more frightening for many women. Although containment strategies, such as those that require women to deliver without a companion present, including partners and doulas, that have already been put into place in some cities in the United States,5 or those that separate newborns from their mothers immediately after birth if the mother is infected with COVID-196 may be clinically important to reduce transmission, they may also have profound short- and long-term mental health implications for women. Among women who have young children, previous research in Ethiopia, India, and Vietnam found that women who experience family-related stressful life events, such as illness or death within the household and financial uncertainty, are more likely to experience episodes of severe mental distress.7 With the ongoing need to social distance, family and community networks may struggle and pregnant and postpartum women may feel even more vulnerable and isolated over a lack of social support.The adverse effects of the pandemic in relation to women's reproductive health are not limited to pregnancy or motherhood. As movement restrictions are put into place, supply chains are disrupted, and businesses are shuttered, some women may be at increased risk of unintended pregnancy should it become difficult to obtain their regular contraceptive method or emergency contraceptives, if needed. Furthermore, some states within the United States have begun to impose restrictions on certain medical procedures that they deem to be elective, including abortion, suggesting they must be delayed until after the pandemic is over.8 Spikes in domestic violence during times of crisis are another area of grave concern for women's health, and as governments continue to put into place more extreme measures to enforce social distancing, for some women, more time at home may mean more time spent with an abusive partner. Fewer social interactions may also mean less accountability for perpetrators and fewer opportunities for others to intervene.Gender-related factors may also increase the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women globally. Women constitute a disproportionately high percentage of caregivers in both the formal and informal sectors.9 A large proportion of frontline health care professionals (nurses, community health workers, health technicians, etc.) is women who face a higher risk of infection, morbidity, and death as a result of their profession.9 At the same time, women more frequently serve as the primary caregivers within a household, which may further increase their risk of exposure. In the United States, 65% of unpaid family caregivers are estimated to be women and 80% of them care for someone aged 50 years or older.10 Outside of their caregiving role, women are overrepresented in the informal employment sector. In low-and middle-income countries, two-thirds of women who work do so as part of the informal economy with limited access to health care for themselves and their families.9 Containment and mitigation policies that limit women's ability to perform their duties without offering effective alternatives, such as closing of daycare facilities for their children or not providing paid sick leave, may result in unnecessary exposure to disease and increased family vulnerability.It is urgent that we adopt a gender lens to study the pandemic and its effects, including the policies and actions that are put into place at the global, country, and local levels. This may be especially important in disadvantaged populations and resource-poor communities, where women are especially vulnerable. The public health community must ensure that existing health and social services meant to support women in the face of their unique needs do not disappear in lieu of the all-encompassing focus on stopping the pandemic. Furthermore, we argue that special attention needs to be paid to ensure that informal caregivers are supported, informed, and protected. To avoid making existing gender disparities larger as a result of the pandemic, a special body at the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention is urgently needed to track sex disaggregated data and analyze policies related to COVID-19 using a gender lens.Author Disclosure StatementNo competing financial interests exist.Funding InformationNo funding was received for this article.References1. Cai H. Sex difference and smoking predisposition in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Respir Med 2020;pii: S2213-2600(20)30117-X. Medline, Google Scholar2. Favre G, Pomar L, Musso D, Baud D. 2019-nCoV epidemic: What about pregnancies? Lancet 2020;395:e40. Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar3. Rasmussen SA, Smulian JC, Lednicky JA, Wen TS, Jamieson DJ. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and pregnancy: What obstetricians need to know. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2020;pii: S0002-9378(20)30197-6. Medline, Google Scholar4. Weigel G. Novel coronavirus "COVID-19": Special considerations for pregnant women. Available at: https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/issue-brief/novel-coronavirus-covid-19-special-considerations-for-pregnant-women/?utm_source=Global+Health+NOW+Main+List Accessed March 17, 2020. Google Scholar5. Caron C, Syckle KV. Laboring alone: Some hospitals bar partners because of virus fears. The New York Times. 2020. Google Scholar6. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Practice advisory: Novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). Available at: https://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Practice-Advisories/Practice-Advisory-Novel-Coronavirus2019?IsMobileSet=false Accessed March 13, 2020. Google Scholar7. Gausman J, Austin SB, Subramanian S, Langer A. Adversity, social capital, and mental distress among mothers of small children: A cross-sectional study in three low and middle-income countries. PLoS One 2020;15:e0228435. Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar8. Tavernise S. Texas and Ohio include abortion as medical procedures that must be delayed. The New York Times. 2020. Google Scholar9. Langer A, Meleis A, Knaul FM, et al. Women and health: The key for sustainable development. Lancet 2015;386:1165–1210. Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar10. Feinberg L, Reinhard SC, Houser A, Choula R. Valuing the invaluable: 2011 update, the growing contributions and costs of family caregiving. Washington, DC: AARP Public Policy Institute, 2011:32. 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No AccessStand Alone Books1 Feb 2013Can Anyone Hear Us?Voices of the PoorAuthors/Editors: Deepa naraya, Raj Patel, Kai Schafft, Anne Rademacher, and Sarah Koch-SchulteDeepa naraya, Raj Patel, Kai Schafft, Anne Rademacher, and Sarah Koch-Schultehttps://doi.org/10.1596/0-1952-1601-6SectionsAboutPDF (2.1 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract:This book is the first in a three-part series, about the common patterns that emerged from the poor people ' s experiences in many different places. Chapter 1 sets out the conceptual framework and methodology. Chapter 2 discusses poverty from the perspective of the poor. Chapter 3 examines poor people ' s experience with the state, and includes case studies of access to health care and education. Chapter 4 addresses the nature and quality of poor people ' s interactions with civil society. Chapter 5 considers the household as a key social institution, and discusses gender relations within households and how these relations affect and are affected by larger institutions of society. Chapter 6 focuses on social fragmentation, and includes a discussion of social cohesion and social exclusion. Chapter 7 concludes the analysis and proposes some policy recommendations. The analysis leads to these conclusions: 1) poverty is multidimensional; 2) the state has been largely ineffective in reaching the poor; 3) the role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in the lives of the poor is limited, forcing the poor to depend primarily on their own informal networks; 4) households are crumbling under the stresses of poverty; and 5) the social fabric - poor people ' s only " insurance " - is unraveling. FiguresreferencesRecommendeddetailsCited by¿Qué factores influyen en la pobreza monetaria en las regiones más pobre y menos pobre del Perú en el año 2021? 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No AccessRegional and Sectoral Studies1 Feb 2013Targeting of Transfers in Developing CountriesReview of Lessons and ExperienceAuthors/Editors: David Coady, Margaret Grosh, John HoddinottDavid Coady, Margaret Grosh, John Hoddinotthttps://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-5769-7SectionsAboutPDF (1.2 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract:Drawing on a database of more than one hundred anti-poverty interventions in 47 countries, Targeting of Transfers in Developing Countries provides a general review of experiences with methods used to target interventions in transition and developing countries. Written for policymakers and program managers in developing countries, in donor agencies, and in NGOs who have responsibility for designing interventions that reach the poor, it conveys what targeting options are available, what results can be expected as well as information that will assist in choosing among them and in their implementation. Key messages are: While targeting "works" - the median program transfers 25 percent more to the poor than would a universal allocation - targeting performance around the world is highly variable. Means testing, geographic targeting, and self-selection based on a work requirement are the most robustly progressive methods. Proxy means testing, community-based selection of individuals and demographic targeting to children show good results on average, but with considerable variation. Demographic targeting to the elderly, community bidding, and self-selection based on consumption show limited potential for good targeting. There is no single preferred method for all types of programs or all country contexts. Successful targeting depends critically on how a method is implemented. 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No AccessWorld Development Report1 Feb 2013World Development Report 1988Opportunities and Risks in Managing the World Economy; Public Finance in Development; World Development IndicatorsAuthors/Editors: World BankWorld Bankhttps://doi.org/10.1596/0-1952-0650-9AboutView ChaptersPDF (28.3 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract:This is the eleventh report in the annual series assessing major development issues. Part I reviews recent trends in the world economy and their implications for the future prospects of developing countries. Part II examines the role of public finance in development. This report includes the World Development Indicators, which provide selected social and economic indicators for more than 100 countries. Despite continued economic growth through 1987 and into 1988, two problems have characterized recent trends: unsustainable economic imbalances within and among industrial countries, and highly uneven economic growth among developing countries. Part I of the report concludes that three interdependent policy challenges need to be addressed. First, industrial countries need to reduce their external payments imbalances. Second, developing countries need to continue restructuring their domestic economic policies in order to gain creditworthiness and growth. Third, net resource transfers, external debt, from the developing countries must be trimmed so that investment and growth can resume. Part II of the report explores how public finance policies are best designed and implemented. How deficits are reduced is crucial: controlling costs in mobilizing revenues and setting careful priorities in public spending are equally important. Efficiency in providing public services and expanding the scope for raising revenue can be achieved through decentralizing decisionmaking and reforming state-owned enterprises with the latter permitting greater private participation. 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No AccessWorld Development Report1 Feb 2013World Development Report 1985International Capital and Economic Development; World Development IndicatorsAuthors/Editors: World BankWorld Bankhttps://doi.org/10.1596/0-1952-0482-4AboutView ChaptersPDF (23.2 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract:This report focuses on the contribution that international capital makes to economic development. While the report pays close attention to the events of the recent past, it also places the use of foreign capital in a broader and longer-term perspective. Using such a perspective, the report shows how countries at different stages of development have used external finance productively; how the institutional and policy environment affects the volume and composition of financial flows to developing countries; and how the international community has dealt with financial crises. This report concludes that the developing countries will have a continuing need for external finance. It demonstrates that many of the policies required to attract external finance and promote economic growth are either being implemented or planned already. 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CAPITALINTERNATIONAL BANKINTERNATIONAL CAPITALREPAYMENTS PDF DownloadLoading ...

<p>Background: Bangladesh is one of the twenty countries in the world with the largest elderly populations, and by 2025, along with four other Asian countries, will account for 44% of world's total elderly population. This rapidly increasing population is a new and important group in terms of social and health policy in the country.</p><p>Aim: This thesis aims to establish a knowledge base about aspects of the health and social situation of elderly people in rural and urban Bangladesh. It also aims to adapt existing instruments assessing health status in terms of gender sensitivity and cultural relevance in the cultural context of Bangladesh. </p><p>Material and methods: A multi-stage sampling method was used to select the study sample of elderly men and women aged 60 years and older (N=786) for a multi-dimensional survey. With a nonresponse rate of 10.8% (urban: 17.9%; rural: 2.5%), 701 elderly persons were interviewed. Information about elderly people was collected under the broad categories: i) Socio-demographic information; ii) Household composition; iii) Socio-economic information and family support; iv) Contribution of elderly person in household work; v) Use of health care facilities; vi) Functional ability and sources of assistance for managing activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living. Cognitive function was also assessed using a modified version of Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) adapted for the study.</p><p>Results: Socio-economic and demographic characteristics of elderly persons in Bangladesh indicate: a high proportion of men (app 90%) were married while women were widowed (67%); 98% of all elderly people reported having children; intergenerational co-residence with sons was common; and more than 70% of elderly men reported being in paid work while elderly women reported unpaid work.</p><p>The Bangla Adaptation of Mini-mental State Examination, BAMSE, a modified Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), adapted for the cultural context of Bangladesh and not requiring literacy as a precondition, demonstrated satisfactory test properties in comparison to MMSE. Association between the two instruments was significant (r=0.57), and the test-retest reliability was good (r=0.70). More importantly, BAMSE was found to be less sensitive to age and education than MMSE.</p><p>Modified assessment instruments of activities of daily living (ADL) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) indicated differential performance in ADL and IADL tasks by gender and region. Socio- economic status was found to influence IADL tasks only. Empirical data regarding type of help used and reason for not performing a task enables understanding of socio-cultural and structural influence on functional ability. Based on this data, socio-cultural and structural factors are suggested to be strong determinants of task performance.</p><p>More than 95% of the elderly people reported experiencing health problems and most reported multiple health problems. More health problems were reported by women compared to men and in the rural region compared to the urban. Socio-economic factors were found to have little influence on reporting of health problems. In terms of provision of support, support from family members in old age was found to be strong in Bangladesh. The role of providers of support, i.e. emotional, practical or material, was primarily shared between spouse, daughter, son and daughter-in-law. While elderly people reported receiving support from their family members, they also reported providing support in the functioning of their own households, both financially and with household activities.</p><p>Implications: The importance of adapting research methodologies according to context is highlighted. Given the contribution of elderly people in terms of paid and unpaid work, re-definition of indicators such as dependency ratio is called for. Regional variation in performance of health measures may indicate influence of social and structural factors. Welfare of the elderly people is an issue that concerns both the elderly persons themselves as well as their families in Bangladesh and policymakers need to address the issue in the context of the family and not only the individual. Differences within the elderly population, such as regional and gender, need to be recognised in formulating social and health policies for elderly people in Bangladesh.</p><h3>List of scientific papers</h3><p>I. Kabir ZN, Szebehely M, Tishelman C, Chowdhury AMR, Hojer B, Winblad B (1998). "Aging Trends: Making an invisible population visible-The elderly in Bangladesh." Journal of Cross-cultural Gerontology 13(4): 361-78</p><p>II. Kabir ZN, Herlitz A (2000). "The Bangla adaptation of Mini-Mental State Examination (BAMSE): an instrument to assess cognitive function in illiterate and literate individuals. " Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 15(5): 441-50 <br><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10822243">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10822243</a><br><br></p><p>III. Kabir ZN, Parker MG, Szebehely M, Tishelman C (2001). "Influence of sociocultural and structural factors on functional ability: The case of elderly people in Bangladesh." Journal of Aging and Health (Accepted)</p><p>IV. Kabir ZN, Tishelman C, Aguero-Torres H, Chowdhury AMR, Winblad B, Hojer B (2001). "Self-reported health problems among the elderly people: results of a cross-sectional study in Bangladesh." (Submitted)</p><p>V. Kabir ZN; Szebehely M, Tishelman C (2001). "Material, practical and emotional support in old age in Bangladesh." (Submitted)</p>

Abstract This article presents recent arguments about the need for sensitivity to diversity issues in psychological practice, and for training programs to attend to these issues. The results of a survey related to the extent and nature of diversity training in Canadian clinical psychology programs are presented, in which diversity was defined broadly as reflecting the vast number of possible individual differences (e.g., culture, nationality, ethnicity, colour, race, gender, religion, sexual preference, disability, economic disadvantage) that can affect clinical psychology knowledge, research, and practice. Directors of Clinical Training (DCrs) at all Canadian clinical psychology programs were asked about the extent to which various aspects of diversity training were deemed important or essential to their program, what training activities were required, and how effective different methods of training were viewed. The results revealed that DCTs varied widely in their opinion of how important diversity materials were, and that few programs require many different methods of training related to diversity. Further, the training methods more commonly adopted did not generally relate well with those that were seen as being most effective. Implications of the survey for training in clinical psychology are provided. [Reference] References [Reference] Abney, V.D. (1996). Cultural competency in the field of child maltreatment. InJ. Briere, L. Berliner,J.A. Bulkley, C. Jenny, & T. Reid (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (pp. 408-419). London: Sage. American Psychological Association. (1991). Guidelines for providers of psychological services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse populations. In H.F. Myers, P. Wohlford, L.P. Guzman, & RJ. Echemendia (Eds.), Ethnic minority perspectives on clinical training and services in psychology. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. [Reference] Aponte,J.F., & Clifford,J. (1995). Education and training issues for intervention with ethnic groups. InJ.F. Aponte, RY. Rivers, &J. Wohl (Eds.), Psychological interventions and cultural diversity (pp. 283-300). Needham Heights, NY: Allyn & Bacon. Arean, P.A., & Gallagher-Thompson, D. (1996). Issues and recommendations for the recruitment and retention of older ethnic minority adults into clinical research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 875-880. Bernal, M.E., & Castro, F.G. (1994). Are clinical psychologists prepared for service and research with ethnic minorities? Report of a decade of progress. American Psychologist, 49, 797-805. Canadian Psychological Association. (1991). Canadian code of ethics for psychologists. Ottawa: Author. Cheatham, H.E. (1994). A response. The Counseling Psychologist, 22, 290-295. Dana, R.H. (1995). Impact of the use of standard psychological assessment on the diagnosis and treatment of ethnic minorities. In J.F. Aponte, RY Rivers, and J. Wahl (Eds.), Psychological interventions and cultural diversity (pp. 57-73). Needham Heights, NY: Allyn Bacon. Esses, V.M. & Gardner, R.C. (1996). Multiculturalism in [Reference] Canada: Context and current status. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 28, 145-152. Fineman, N. (1991). The social construction of noncompliance: Implications for cross-cultural geriatric practice. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 6, 219-227. Gray-Little, B. (1995). The assessment of psychopathology in racial and ethnic minorities. InJ.N. Butcher (Ed.), Clinical personality assessment: Practical approaches (pp. 140-157). New York: Oxford. Hall, C.C.I. (1997). Cultural malpractice: The growing obsolescence of psychology with the changing II.S. population. American Psychologist, 52, 642-651. [Reference] Harre, R. …

D ESPITE periodic questioning of the merits and utility of the vast number of publications focused on family caregivers by key scholars in the field (e.g., George, 1990; Zarit, 1989), the number of studies of caregiving and family caregivers has not diminished. A review of the contents of The Journals of Gerontology and The Gerontologist in just the past three years reveals a total of 61 articles concerned with caregiving issues. When attention is given to the study designs and data analysis techniques reported in these articles, there is a clear indication that the work in this area has advanced beyond a natal stage to a more sophisticated adolescence. When, however, attention is given to the research questions most frequently addressed, there is reason to question the advancement of this field of study. A large majority of research on caregiving continues to use cross-sectional data to describe the prevalence of various family members as caregivers, differences among family members and cultural groups in the patterns of care provided, and the consequences (or lack of consequences) of such care for various family members. A disproportionate emphasis has been placed on psychological distress and caregiver burden, while studies of the ameliorative effects of

This special issue of the Journal grew out of a session on aging in the Middle East at the annual scientific meeting of the Gerontological Society of America (GSA) in 2006. There has been a growing interest on the part of GSA members about aging outside of the United States and we wanted to contribute to this developing interest by offering a session on the topic focusing on aging persons from the Middle East. This issue contains papers based on presentations at that session along with other papers that have been added to provide a broader perspective on the topic.

PURPOSE: We explored cross-cultural similarities and differences in minority family caregivers' perceptions of the onset and diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in their relatives, with specific attention to clinical encounters. DESIGN AND METHODS: We performed a meta-synthesis of three qualitative studies conducted in Massachusetts with 22 African American, Latino, and Chinese caregivers. RESULTS: All participants conveyed striking similarities of thought about normalization of cognitive symptoms until one critical event, usually relocation, precipitated family awareness that an elder's behavior was not the result of "normal aging." A lack of knowledge about Alzheimer's disease, rather than culturally influenced beliefs, was the major deterrent to having an elder's memory assessed. Community physicians' failure to recognize Alzheimer's disease or refer to specialists was more problematic than language or ethnic differences. Physicians' disrespect for caregivers' concerns about memory loss was particularly noted by African Americans, stigmatization of persons with Alzheimer's disease was noted by Chinese, and fears that acculturation would end family home care was noted by Latinos. IMPLICATIONS: Amid ethnocultural differences, there are many similarities in needs that offer providers the possibility to unify quality improvements in Alzheimer's disease outreach, education, and physicians' services. Suggestions include providing the public with more confidential access to Alzheimer's disease information, increasing dementia awareness among community physicians, motivating clinicians to adopt culturally sensitive communication patterns, and providing community education to reduce normalization by families and stigmatization of persons with Alzheimer's disease.

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Belief in divine intervention in illness or healing is related to religious belief in general (Furnham, A. (1994). Explaining health and illness: Lay beliefs on the nature of health.Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 455–466; Mansfield, C. J., Mitchell, J., & King, D. E. (2002). The doctor as God's mechanic? Beliefs in the Southeastern United States. Social Science and Medicine, 54, 399–409; Mitchell, J., & Weatherly, D. (2000). Beyond church attendance: Religiosity and mental health among rural older adults. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 15, 37–54). There has been little investigation of the nature of such belief among committed churchgoers and, in particular, whether or not belief in miraculous healing is a single or multi-dimensional construct. Scales measuring beliefs about miraculous healing were developed using a sample of 404 Anglicans drawn from a variety of traditions within the Church of England. Participants were asked to respond to various hypothetical scenarios such as a claim that prayer healed cancer, a claim of healing by Spiritualists and a failure to cure someone who had been prayed with for healing. Item scores were subject to an exploratory factor analysis to determine if belief about miraculous healing was multi- or uni-dimensional. Belief in miraculous healing showed at least four dimensions: (1) the possibility of such healing today; (2) the exclusivity of Christian faith healing; (3) the sovereignty of God over illness; and (4) the role of humans in the process. Scores on these dimensions were positively correlated with each other and with measures of conservative Christian belief. Beliefs about healing were strongly correlated with charismatic practice and less strongly to age, education, church attendance and church tradition. Beliefs about miraculous healing among regular churchgoers were complex and varied considerably, even within a single Christian denomination. Simple measures of religiosity and belief do not always adequately describe Christian beliefs about divine intervention in healing.