Since prehistoric times, Italy has represented a bridge between peoples, genes and cultures. Its peculiar geographical position explains why: it is located in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, flanked by the Balkans and the Hellenic Peninsula to the east, Iberia to the west and surrounded by North Africa to the south and central Europe to the north. This makes Italy of extraordinary interest for the study of some different aspects of human diversity. Here we overview current knowledge regarding the relationships between the structure of the genetic variation of Italian populations and the geographical, ecological and cultural factors that have characterized their evolutionary history. Human presence in Italian territory is deeply rooted in the past. Lithic artifacts produced by the genus Homo and remains of Homo sapiens are among the earliest to have been found on the continent, as shown by the lithic industry of Pirro Nord (between 1.3 and 1.6 Mya) and the dental remains of the "Grotta del Cavallo" (between 45 and 43 Kya). Genetic and genomic studies relating to existing and extinct human groups have shed light on the migrations from Europe, Africa and Asia that created the ancient layers of the genetic structure of today's Italian populations, especially before the Iron Age. The important role of isolation (genetic and cultural) in shaping genetic structure is clearly visible in the patterns of intra- and inter-population diversity observed among Italian ethno-linguistic minorities that settled on the peninsula and on the major islands until the 19th century. Finally, selective pressures have likely driven the distribution of originally adaptive variants and haplotypes that now confer protection or susceptibility to major diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease (in northern Italy) and tuberculosis and leprosy (in the south). What emerges is a picture where the combined effects of migration, isolation and natural selection generated by the interplay of geography, environment and culture have shaped a complex pattern of human diversity that is unique in Europe and which goes hand in hand with today's rich animal and plant biodiversity. In a nutshell, scientific evidence and cultural heritage paint Italy as a place with extremely diverse environments where distant peoples have met since the deep past, bringing and sharing genes and ideas.
This review article explores the concept of de-generacy as a fundamental yet underutilised principle in evolutionary anthropology. De-generacy, defined as structurally distinct elements performing overlapping functions, is widely recognised in genetics, neurobiology, and immunology but remains overlooked in cultural evolution. Distinguishing de-generacy from redundancy-where identical structures fulfill the same role-is crucial for understanding adaptability, resilience, and innovation in both biological and cultural systems. Despite its explanatory potential, de-generacy has been largely absent from anthropological discourse due to historical baggage and terminological confusion. The misuse of "degeneracy" in colonial and eugenic narratives has hindered its application, even as contemporary evolutionary theory-particularly the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis-highlights structural variation as a driver of adaptive complexity. Consequently, an opportunity to refine methodologies in anthropological research, particularly in modelling cultural transmission, has been overlooked. De-generacy is a distributed property of complex adaptive systems that, in many circles of science, has been hidden in plain sight, overlooked because of a reductionist bias, and ignored because the term itself is misleading. This article clarifies the distinction between de-generacy and redundancy and demonstrates its significance in biological anthropology. Empirical examples illustrate degeneracy across multiple domains, including linguistic variation, kinship terminologies, and ritual practices. A comparative case study of Indonesian Silek and Brazilian Capoeira provides a snapshot of how structurally distinct yet functionally similar cultural formations emerge across diverse contexts. These examples reinforce de-generacy as a key explanatory principle in cultural resilience and transformation. By integrating degeneracy into evolutionary anthropology, this article advances a more nuanced understanding of cultural transmission and transformation. Recognising structurally diverse yet functionally coherent practices enhances models of cultural evolution, moving beyond strictly adaptationist explanations. Ultimately, degeneracy provides a robust conceptual tool for analysing variation, complexity, and persistence in human evolutionary systems, warranting greater attention in interdisciplinary research.
Recent technical and methodological advances have provided new insights into Neandertal thorax morphology, revealing significant differences compared to modern humans, both in terms of the individual elements (vertebrae, ribs, and sternum), and in the thorax as a whole. However, the thorax morphology of immature Neandertals remains poorly understood, due to the limited and fragmentary fossil record. The Roc de Marsal (RdM) infant is one of the few cases in which the vertebrae and ribs are both relatively well preserved. Previous research has characterised the ribs of the RdM individual as having shafts with low robusticity and short necks. They also have a large radius of curvature (i.e., they are less curved) and a pronounced anterior flare. Theoretically, this would result in a thorax that was more anteroposteriorly projected than that of Homo sapiens, with a maximum width at the 7th rib. Here, we reassess the anatomical position of the thoracic vertebrae and ribs of RdM, evaluating previous observations using a combination of traditional measurements and 3D geometric morphometrics. A morphological assessment of the most complete ribs (7, 9, 10 and 11) reveals marked differences between the ribs of RdM and those of modern human children. These differences include less curvature of the shaft in cranial view, more vertically oriented and straighter (i.e., less sinuous, with less torsion) shafts in external view. At least for ribs 9-11, the shaft portion sternal to the posterior angle is also longer. In some instances, these differences are similar to those present in adult Neandertals, suggesting that the Neandertal thorax was distinct from that of H. sapiens since infancy. This study reinforces the idea that the size and shape of the individual elements (the ribs and vertebrae) provide information about the distinctiveness of the entire thorax.
Genetic variability of Roma population was shaped by the strong influence of genetic drift and gene flow during the migrations from their ancestral homeland in Indian subcontinent towards Europe. In addition, social stigmatization in many European countries, as a consequence of different cultural heritage and social practices, induced further genetic differentiation and sub structuring within the population. Although many populations genetic studies on European Roma were carried out, the genetic structure of the Serbian Roma has not been described yet, since only the modest number of individuals from this territory was analyzed. The main aim of this study was the characterization of genetic variability of the Roma and the assessment of intrapopulation genetic differentiation based on the analysis of 21 autosomal STR loci of 259 self-identified unrelated individuals from Serbia. Intrapopulation analysis revealed divergence of Roma groups illustrating the effect of the historical events after their arrival on Balkan Peninsula and emphasizing significance of the religious affiliation on admixture with autochthonous population. Genetic distance analysis showed the greatest similarity of the studied population with the Middle Eastern populations, while South Asian and European population were more distant. Our results demonstrate that Roma groups in this region of Balkan Peninsula do not represent completely isolated, but rather admixed populations with different proportion of gene flow with other Roma and non-Roma groups.
Despite ample evidence that Paleolithic humans hunted large and dangerous carnivores, such as lions, leopards, and bears, skeletal evidence of negative interactions with wild fauna is extremely rare in the Homo sapiens paleobiological record. To date, the only individual for whom an animal attack has been hypothesized based on their pattern of traumatic lesions is the Gravettian adolescent buried at Arene Candide Cave in Liguria (northwestern Italy; 27,900-27,300 cal BP) nicknamed "Il Principe" (The Prince) due to the rich grave goods placed in the burial. Since its excavation in 1942, it was noted that this individual was missing part of the mandible and half of the left clavicle, leading to the hypothesis of an attack by a large animal, likely a bear. However, this claim was never fully investigated. We reanalyzed these lesions and systematically examined the skeleton for additional evidence to reconstruct the manner and circumstances of death. Our analysis confirmed the perimortem nature of the mandibular and shoulder lesions and identified other possible fractures related to the violent event in the cranium, dentition, and possibly the cervical spine. Additional perimortem trauma, including a linear marking on the left parietal and a puncture mark in the fibula, supports the hypothesis of animal mauling. Given the overall traumatic pattern, a bear attack - Ursus arctos or Ursus spelaeus - remains the most plausible explanation. The study also revealed that the Principe had sustained traumatic injuries to his feet - a fracture of the left little toe and osteochondritis dissecans in the right talus - which support the hypothesis that prehistoric foragers experienced limited survival following lower limb injuries. Despite the thoraco-facial trauma and disfiguring wounds, the microscopic analysis suggests that the Principe survived for a few days. The violent event and the long agony may have been reflected in the elaborate burial, following the presumed Gravettian use of formally burying exceptional individuals and exceptional events.
The questions - When did humans arrive in the Americas? Who were they, or from where did they come from? -are enduring and fascinating inquiries that have been approached from different perspectives, thanks to the contributions of archaeology, biological anthropology, and linguistics, among other disciplines. As a result, and after several centuries of studies, this body of research inspired several proposed models on the peopling of the Americas. These models are not only equally unique from each other but also distinct from the current themes in recent literature. However, there is a limited and occasionally inaccurate reference to the knowledge produced in the peripheral countries. This may be attributed to differences in language, academic traditions, as well as the consequences of geopolitics and neocolonialism in science. By reviewing both the old and recent literature, my aim is to present a historical account of how biological evidence has contributed to supporting and discussing some of the broad models that were proposed to explain the peopling of the Americas. Instead of providing an exhaustive account on the models, herein I focus on critically linking evidence and discussions ranging from the early skeletal discoveries at Lagoa Santa in Brazil in the 1830s to the current challenges of integrating a large amount of disparate data and collaborating with indigenous communities in the "omics" era. Far from being fully understood, investigations into the antiquity and the ancestral origin of Native Americans are revealing that these complex questions should be addressed by combining diverse data, articulating information at finer and larger grain scales, and adopting a sensitive and respectful approach by engaging with the views of indigenous communities.
Bone histomorphometry refers to the study of the structure and microscopic features of bone tissue. It involves the measurement and assessment of bone microanatomy, and it provides valuable information on bone properties. Through the application of histomorphometry, researchers can acquire information on bone metabolism and on remodeling dynamics, which is useful to the study of bone health. During the last 50 years, biological anthropologists have adopted the use of histomorphometry while examining issues specific to human health and evolutionary trends from prehistoric remains. Scientists coming from the medical field have applied histomorphometry in their research as it allows the study of bone changes, useful to describe pathological conditions among these ancient human remains. This paper reflects on some of the research that involves histomorphometric analysis specific to diet and health, forensic anthropology, taphonomic assessment of bone, non-human primate research and biomechanics. The purpose of the paper is to consider past and future applications of bone histomorphometry to enable a discussion which might direct research towards under-explored areas of bone biology. For example, looking at renewed interest in clavicular histology and stimulating investigations that focus on osteocyte density. Additionally, a discussion is offered concerning OPD values used to correlate chronological age to biological age estimations.
The primary aim of this pilot study is not to provide definitive statements on Neanderthal kinematics, but rather to illustrate the potential of Procrustes Motion Analysis (PMA) combined with predictive modelling as a robust tool for addressing questions of functional morphology in the fossil record. We use this novel approach to model and compare the potential upper cervical spine (UCS) flexion-extension kinematics of the La Ferrassie 1 Neanderthal and modern humans. The study material comprised the 3D virtual morphology of the occipital base, atlas (C1), and axis (C2) of La Ferrassie 1 and the corresponding kinematic and morphological data from seven unembalmed modern human cadaveric specimens. We first used the PMA framework to analyze the shape-motion relationship in the modern human sample. This relationship was then used to build a predictive model. We applied this model to the UCS morphology of La Ferrassie 1-inferring its potential motion trajectory rather than measuring direct fossil kinematics-and statistically compared the results to the modern human mean. Contrary to previous hypotheses based solely on morphological inference, our model-based results challenge the assumption of reduced Neanderthal neck mobility. The inferred trajectory of flexion-extension for La Ferrassie 1 were statistically comparable to that of the modern human sample, suggesting no significant difference in this specific movement. This study demonstrates the utility of integrating empirical motion data, geometric morphometrics, and predictive modelling in paleoanthropology, offering a significant advance over traditional morphological inference. By successfully illustrating the application of PMA, this research provides a new framework for investigating hominin kinematics, while simultaneously emphasizing that the kinematics presented for the Neanderthal specimen were predicted and modelled, not directly measured.
Human nutrition represents a dynamic interplay between biological evolution and cultural development, profoundly shaping dietary practices and health outcomes. This paper traces the dietary evolution of the genus Homo, from practices like foraging, scavenging, hunting, and gathering to the Neolithic transition towards agropastoral subsistence. These changes influenced human biology, evident in genetic adaptations such as lactase persistence and amylase gene copy variation, and reshaped societal structures and population dynamics. Cultural phenomena, including food rituals and dietary norms, further shaped community identities and nutritional habits. However, industrialization and globalization have introduced new challenges, including obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases, driven by processed food consumption and sedentary lifestyles. These issues are exacerbated by ancestral genetic predispositions, such as the "thrifty gene" hypothesis, which links evolutionary adaptations to modern health disparities in specific populations. Advances in nutrigenomics and personalized nutrition provide promising avenues for tailoring dietary interventions to individual genetic profiles, promoting health and preventing chronic diseases. Artificial intelligence (AI) offers innovative tools for diet assessment, tracking, and personalized guidance, presenting opportunities to address global health disparities. However, these technological advancements must navigate ethical concerns, data privacy issues, and cultural sensitivities. By taking into account biological, cultural, and technological perspectives, this study emphasizes the importance of integrating anthropological and nutritional sciences in addressing modern health challenges. It highlights the role of cultural practices in shaping dietary behaviour and advocates for interdisciplinary collaboration to ensure culturally sensitive, equitable nutrition strategies.
Colour strongly shapes our perception of the world and plays a main role in the emergence of language and in the transmission of information. It has been shown that systematic use of ochre, along with other cultural traits that reflect cognitive complexity, disappear and reappear from the archaeological record, suggesting that cultural transmission follows discontinuous trajectories that to this day are unknown to us. Understanding when humans started using colour and how this feature evolved may therefore be instrumental to understand the evolutionary paths followed by members of our lineage towards cultural complexity. The earliest secure evidence for ochre use is found at 300.000-year-old archaeological sites from Africa and Europe. It usually consists of iron-rich rocks characterized by a red, orange, yellow or brown colour and/or streak, modified by grinding, scraping and knapping to produce red or yellow powder, ochre residues adhering to different types of artefacts or sediment stained with ochre or rich in ochre microfragments. Around 160 ka, ochre use becomes a recurrent feature. Although analyses of ochre collections have become increasingly frequent, there is still very little information on the first instances of ochre use and on how this cultural feature evolved through time. Most cases of early evidence for colour use by different human fossil species were recovered during excavations conducted several decades ago, when ochre was not documented systematically. Excluding a few recently studied cases, there is often a lack of evidence to support the anthropogenic nature of these findings. The aim of this paper is to summarise what we know on ochre use during the Lower Palaeolithic / Early Stone Age (ESA) and Middle Palaeolithic / Middle Stone Age (MSA), review techniques currently used for the analysis of this material and highlight analytical and theoretical issues surrounding this complex cultural feature.
Of the many critical phases of human evolution, one of the most investigated is the transition from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic with the pivotal bio-cultural substitution of Neanderthals by Homo sapiens in Western Eurasia. The complexity of this over ten thousands years phase raises from the ensemble of evidence ascribed to the diverse adaptations expressed by Neanderthals and the first representatives of our species. In countless archaeological records Neanderthals left clear traces of a cultural variability dotted with innovations in the technology of stone and bone tools, alongside with manifestations in the range of the symbolic sphere. Together with other aspects of daily life, this evidence contributes shedding light on the cognitive aptitudes of those hominins and reassessing gaps in Pleistocene human diversities. Among archaeological contexts, the cave of Fumane in the Monti Lessini (Veneto Pre-Alps, northeastern Italy) is a key site. It is positioned along the potential trajectory of hominins moving into southern Europe from eastern and southeastern regions and includes a finely layered sedimentary sequence with cultural layers ascribed to the Mousterian, Uluzzian, Aurignacian and Gravettian. The ensemble constitutes one of the most complete, detailed and dated continental stratigraphic series from a segment of the late Pleistocene between 50 and 30 ka cal BP in a cave context of Southern Europe. Assessments based on sedimentological and palaeontological record provide indicators for framing Neanderthals in their respective ecological contexts since the late Middle Pleistocene until their demise during MIS3. On-going research is producing data ascribable to the human ecological relations and the interaction with specific natural resources, thus contributing to shed light on the complexity of Neanderthal behavior. Thanks to the high-resolution archaeological record of the earliest appearances of Homo sapiens, Fumane also provides clues to compare life, subsistence, and cultures between these Pleistocene hominins for comprehensive reasonings on our unicity.
This article aims to examine the complex and ambivalent conception of Africa and its peoples in the work of Italian anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi (1848-1936), placing it in the context of the birth of Italian colonialism and the scientific debates of the time. On the one hand, based on his new method of recognizing ethnic groups, Sergi developed an original vision that included the peoples of East and North Africa in the Mediterranean stock and affirmed a closeness and interconnection between Europe and Africa. On the other hand, his vision remained anchored in the "racial" hierarchies typical of positivism: Sergi considered the "black" peoples of sub-Saharan Africa to be physically, intellectually, and morally "inferior", placing them in a "barbaric" stage of human evolution. Despite this hierarchical view, Sergi was a fierce critic of Italian colonialism and imperialism, which he considered economically disadvantageous, politically short-sighted, and morally anachronistic. Inspired by socialist and pacifist ideals, he condemned colonial violence and promoted the emancipation of peoples through international cooperation. Giuseppe Sergi's work thus embodies the contradictions of the anthropological thinking of his time, characterized by a constant oscillation between progressive openness and deeply rooted prejudices.
North Africa is a key area for understanding cultural processes that led to the Acheulean pan - African emergence and expressions and the related hominin population dynamics. Unfortunately, little is known about the early Acheulean in this vast area of the African continent due to the scarceness of archaeological sites in stratigraphic context with reliable chronometric data, human remains, and technological analyses of the lithic industries. Here, we present the first comprehensive techno-economic analysis of the early Acheulean assemblage from Thomas Quarry I - Unit L1 (ThI-L1, Casablanca, Morocco), which is the earliest Acheulean site of North Africa, unambiguously dated to 1.3 Ma. Fieldwork has unearthed faunal remains and a lithic collection containing over 3800 artefacts, which represents one of the largest series for the early African Acheulean. The assemblage is mainly composed of quartzites and to a lesser extent of silicites, both abundantly available near the site. Previously published results of the silicite study revealed two different productions for the extraction of small flakes and of bladelet-like flakes. In this work, we analyse the techno-economic systems of the quartzite assemblage. Two distinct quartzite productions co-occur, one devoted to the manufacture of Large Cutting Tools (LCTs), the other focused on the extraction of small-medium sized flakes. LCTs were usually produced from large cobbles, less often from large flakes detached mainly using the entame core method. The main technical objective was to obtain large pointed tools and, more rarely, large tools with a transversal cutting edge. Results support the existence of a strong synergy between conceptual and operational schemes regulated by the ability to anticipate the final tool morphology and to apply standardized shaping procedures to manufacture recurrent morphotypes. Quartzite small-medium sized flakes were produced by a diversity of flaking methods adapted to the cobble blank morphologies and were not retouched. The results allow to assess that the earliest technical expression of the Acheulean in North Africa is characterised by a high diversification of the stone knapping outcomes, the complexity of the mental templates, and the flexible structure of the operational schemes.
Here we present the results of a microcontextual analysis of purported combustion features recovered from Middle and Upper Paleolithic occupations at the cave site of Fumane, Italy. Our analyses, which integrate micromorphology with organic petrology, show that only a few of the features represent primary, intact hearths; some of them show evidence for various phases of anthropogenic reworking, either through trampling or sweeping and dumping. Several of the features are multi-layered and reflect a complex formation history of various activities related to combustion and site maintenance. Many appear to be the remnants of occupation horizons only partially preserved and peripherally related to combustion. Within several of the intact hearths from the Mousterian, we were able to identify variable fuel sources in different features, implying a degree of flexibility in the fuel-selection strategies of the Neanderthal occupants of Fumane. In this study we design a classification system of the anthropogenic features and also conduct a spatial analysis, through which we can infer diachronic patterns in the frequency and intensity of site occupation and the spatial distribution of activities. We note a decrease in frequency of combustion features throughout the Mousterian which continues into the Uluzzian. The features associated with the Protoaurignacian occupation, in contrast with those from the Mousterian, are multi-layered and well-defined. We argue that these trends, which correspond with other trends in artefact frequency, imply changes in the settlement dynamics of the site during the transition from the last Neanderthal occupation of the cave to the arrival of modern humans.
Seasonality plays a critical role in determining the yearly dietary variability of many nonhuman primates living in tropical and subtropical environments. Much previous research has emphasised the seasonal importance of both preferred resources-eaten whenever available-and fallback foods-eaten during periods of scarcity to compensate for an insufficient availability of preferred resources. However, previous discussions of this dichotomy have often overlooked why different populations of the same taxon may exhibit a different level of engagement with identical resources, especially those that require additional technological investment by virtue of being embedded. Similarly, not enough attention has been given to diachronic trends in the incorporation of novel resources to seasonal consumption patterns among non-human primates. In this paper, we present a systematic framework for understanding the spatio-temporal relationships between preferred and fallback resources, explicitly through the lens of landscape knowledge and seasonal fluctuations in quality and availability among chimpanzee communities. We argue it is the interplay between resource quality and the available knowledge pertaining to its exploitation that will determine the categorisation of a resource. In this regard, the accumulation of further information through encounter, experimentation, and behavioural (including technological( innovation enables resources with high nutritional potential to attain preferred status. We end with an exploration of the gradual consolidation of the hominin carnivory niche in the Early Pleistocene of East Africa, to demonstrate the utility of our framework-specifically the interplay between seasonality and the concept of landscape knowledge-for understanding behavioural change in the archaeological record.
Despite a number of issues in its collation, the dataset published by Oswalt et al. (1976) remains a key resource for operationalising cross-cultural technological variability and understanding the socioecological drivers of cultural change in small-scale societies. At the same time, however, it has not been comprehensively explored using up-to-date contextual metrics of subsistence, climate, and demographic structure in each population. In this paper, we present a novel evolutionary framework for understanding technological change in both modern and past populations, according to the complex fitness landscapes of cultural evolution present in different environments. We then use this framework as a lens to explore the drivers of toolkit composition and complexity among hunter-gatherer populations to assess how they relate to the adoption of particular behavioural strategies. We suggest a hierarchy of interlinked influences on the nature of technology: resource distributions exert the most proximate influence on their character, but demography (especially the size of seasonally-aggregated groups) and climate (especially seasonality and inter-annual predictability) are themselves critical in constraining technological possibilities. Finally, we argue that landscape knowledge is crucial in driving access over time to the highest-return technological strategies that are possible in any given environmental context.
Cortical bone and dentine share similarities in their embryological origin, development, and genetic background. Few analyses have combined the study of cortical bone and dentine to quantify their covariation relative to endogenous and exogenous factors. However, knowing how these tissues relate in individuals is of great importance to decipher the factors acting on their evolution, and ultimately to understand the mechanisms responsible for the different patterns of tissue proportions shown in hominins. The aims of this study are to examine age-, sex-, and ancestry-related variation in cortical bone and dentine volumes, and to preliminary assess the possible covariation between these tissues in modern humans and in five composite Neandertals. The modern analytical sample includes 12 immature individuals from France and 49 adults from France and South Africa. Three-dimensional tissue proportions were assessed from microtomographic records of radii and permanent maxillary canines. Results suggest ontogenic differences and a strong sexual dimorphism in cortical bone and dentine developments. The developmental pattern of dentine also seems to vary according to individual's ancestry. We measure a stronger covariation signal between cortical bone and dentine volumes than with any other dental tissue. A more complex covariation pattern is shown when splitting the modern sample by age, sex, and ancestry, as no signal is found in some subsamples while others show a covariation between cortical bone and either crown or radicular dentine. Finally, no difference in cortical bone volume is noticed between the modern young adults and the five young adult composite Neandertals from Marine Isotopic Stages (MIS) 5 and 3. Greater dentine Cortical bone and dentine (co)variation volumes are measured in the MIS 5 chimeric Neandertals whereas a strong interpopulation variation in dentine thickness is noticed in the MIS 3 chimeric Neandertals. Further research on the cortical bonedentine covariation will increase understanding of the impact of endogenous and exogenous factors on the development of the mineralized tissues.
The development of protocols integrating 3D geometric morphometric data into cladistic analyses offers powerful tools to reassess previously established phylogenies. We examine evolutionary relationships within the genus Homo by comparing results from recently developed cladistic protocols using 3D data with an approach based on morphological characters. We applied both to 78 hominid calvaria - comprising 9 great apes, 45 Homo sapiens, and 24 fossil specimens (2 australopithecines and 22 Homo) - grouped into 23 operational taxonomic units. The sample is described using 347 landmarks and 59 discrete characters, from which three datasets were generated. The first uses Procrustes-aligned 3D landmark coordinates. The second uses principal component coordinates from a Principal Component Analysis run on the aligned landmarks. The third dataset includes coded morphological features. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using TNT software following a three-step protocol. Firstly, a phylogenetic search using the heuristic algorithm under equal weight was performed. Secondly, the consistency and rescaled consistency indices for each character were extracted. Finally, a second phylogenetic search using the heuristic algorithm after reweighting of the characters was performed. The cladistic analyses of 3D data and discrete morphological traits yield different yet mostly congruent results, highlighting the strengths and limitations of each approach, and bringing new insight on long standing discussions in palaeoanthropology.
Lactase persistence (LP), the genetically determined capacity to digest lactose beyond infancy, stands as a prime example of rapid, recent human adaptation and gene-culture coevolution. Across Africa, the distribution of genetic variants associated with LP reveals intricate patterns reflecting a complex interplay between the cultural innovation of dairying, intense positive selection, adaptation to varied environments, and diverse, continent-spanning migratory events. This review synthesizes current knowledge from genetics (including ancient DNA), anthropology, and archaeology (including lipid residue analysis of pottery and paleo proteomics of ancient dental calculus) to explore how LP variants function as powerful bioarcheological tracers of African demographic history, dietary shifts, and cultural transitions within the African continent. By integrating evidence from these multiple disciplines, I aim to illustrate how the evolution and dispersal of LP alleles mirror significant demographic events and cultural innovations throughout Africa's prehistory, highlighting one of the strongest examples of recent human adaptation.
Founded in 1894, the Museum "G. Sergi" houses a variety of osteological materials and other collections, including several plaster facial casts from different human populations. This paper investigates this collection, which has been acquired (at least in part) in the framework of Italian colonialism, focusing on expeditions respectively led by Lidio Cipriani and Corrado Gini during the fascist regime. By examining these casts and the colonial missions associated with them, we compare the goals of Cipriani and Gini, uncovering the otherwise forgotten history of these collections, and provide new insights from the perspective of the colonized. While Gini's records include the names of local actors, Cipriani's documentation identifies individuals in only one notable case, that of the "Arabi dello Yemen", a group of Yemenis about to join the Italian askari forces. Globally, many museums are re-evaluating similar samples and it is in this framework that we present these case-studies. In addition, as a collaborative effort by researchers from different fields, this paper aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion about how human facial casts should be displayed in museums.