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The possibility of widespread lead exposure during antiquity has awakened interest during the last few decades. The purpose of this study was to examine: 1) possible sources of lead exposure, 2) ideas concerning the health hazards of lead, 3) the extent of lead exposure, and 4) the influence of lead on public health during antiquity. Both written and archaeological data seem to prove that part of the population was exposed to lead during antiquity. Occupational exposure was most probably most important, but food and wine also played a part. The role of water in this context is hard to evaluate. Lead exposure by medical and cosmetic use was most probably epidemiologically unimportant. Evidently some population groups occasionally suffered from lead poisoning. There is, however, no reason to suppose that lead had something to do with the fate of the Roman aristocracy or the collapse of the Roman Empire.
Two private organizations, the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare and the Folkhälsan Association, established the Public Health Nursing institution in Finland in the beginning of the 1920's. These organizations laid the foundation of, developed and supervised the activities of the Public Health Nursing institution, which became statutory in 1944. They also started the training of public health nurses, which in 1931 was taken over by the state. In 1924 instructions were issued stating the duties, responsibilities and rights of the public health nurse. She had to visit each home in her district. Her main duty was to explain the principles of healthy living for the promotion of health and the prevention of disease. Although her work had a preventive nature, her duties included nursing care of the sick in their homes if needed. She also had to instruct someone in the home in nursing. The health of the family was the goal of all public health nursing. The emphasis was on nursing care during pregnancy and the care of the mother and new-born baby after delivery. Other duties were supervision of the infant and pre-school child through home visits and group conferences. Supervision of the health and habits of the school-child, including assistance in the control of communicable diseases in cooperation with physicians, school personnel and parents. Supervision of the health of adults in regard to prevention and control of communicaable diseases, especially tuberculosis. Nursing care including first aid and the promotion of health of industrial workers and their families. Teaching of first aid, home nursing and child care....
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The French Eugenical Society was founded in 1913, but eugenics had been actively discussed already much earlier, although under varing names. The main protagonists of early French eugenics were Georges Vacher de Lapouge, who was inspired by Galton and socialism, Adolphe Pinard, who propagated the "puericulture", and Paul Robin, who represented neo-malthusianism in his country. Alexis Carrel's ideas on improving the human race became widespread especially through his book "Man, the Unknown", published simultaneously in French and English in 1935. In general, the French eugenicists were more in favour of positive eugenics than negative selection, including sterilization, but their general influence was weaker than in several other countries.
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No attempts have previously been made to compile statistics on livestock production on the royal domains during the 16th century. Farming was of great importance and in Bishop Peder Månsson's book on farming, cattle-breeding plays an important role and passages are included concerning cattle-diseases and their treatment. The account books of the bailiffs also cover the royal domains. They contain detailed information about all economic transactions and everyday life on the estate. The estates were not just centers for local administration, they also offered the farmers an opportunity to acquaint themselves with new breeds and farming techniques. It is easy to imagine the surprise of the local farmers when the bailiff in 1557 brought two peacocks from Sweden to the estate Ulfsby in Satakunda. In 1560 a serious cattle-disese broke out in Pemar, and on the estate of Nyby one ox, eleven bull calves, four cows, nine heifers, six goats, six lambs and seventy-one pigs died. It is the only time a disease is mentioned in the accounts, but it is possible indirectly to trace serious diseases by comparing the number of slaughtered animals with the total mortality....
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Barbro Christina Hastesko Fortuna's parents were Lorentz Hastesko-Fortuna, descendant from a famous military family, and Sofia Gios, the daughter of Lagman Johan Gios and Sofia Ille. The mother died in 1699 after the birth of Sofia's only brother. The father died in 1705. The orpahn girl was given in marriage almost as a child to an officer by name Carl Johan Norman. He was killed in 1710 in the Great Northern War. The young wife was in captivity in Russia until 1721. There she studied medicine. Soon after her release in the summer of 1721, she married Captain Johan Ventzel Rotkirch. The husband belonged to a well-known military family of German extraction. Barbro Christina Hastesko-Fortuna and her husband inhabited the Stensbole manor at Porvoo. A total of 10 children were born in the family. In spite of her duties as lady of a large manor and the mother of a big family, Barbro Christina Hastesko-Fortuna treated eye diseases in all social classes in a wide area. Her function was examined in 1769 by request of her son at a session of the Porvoo District Court. The Court issued a laudatory statement. The medicines prepared by her were effective as testified by both young and old witnesses, particularly when they were used according to her instructions.
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Endre Hogyes, one of the most prominent and internationally known leaders in the field of medical research, a specialist on the treatment of rabies, was born one hundred and fifty years ago in Hungary. E. Hogyes started his medical career and research in 1870. In 1889 he became vice-president of the Royal Hungarian society of Natural Sciences and was elected as member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA) and member of the National Council of Public Health. The scientific career of E Hogyes was throughout closely linked to the physiological sciences. He contributed significantly in different fields of the physiological sciences. His most important scientific publications in this field deal with renal physiology, respiratory mechanics, cerebellar function and associated eye movements. Endre Hogyes was the first to organize Hungarian physiologists into a community. The "Special Physiological Conferences" were initiated within the Hungarian Royal Society of Natural Sciences in 1891. As a proof of appreciation, Hungarian physiologists and other medical professionals have proclaimed the year 1997 as a memorial year of Dr. Endre Hogyes.
This article presents various trends in the published accounts of the history of health care and some critical remarks concerning the classic history of medicine. At the end of the article some suggestions are made as to the possible role of historical consideration in the support of medical studies and the medical profession.
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