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Antiquity has been considered the cradle of western civilization, including medicine. The role of diseases in the course of history has been stressed by several authors during the last few decades. The aim of this study is to survey the occurrence of diseases in antiquity. There are many obstacles to the study of the occurrence of diseases during antiquity. The most serious problem is the lack of reliable sources. Mostly we have to rely on written sources. Sometimes it is possible to supplement them with archaeological findings (e.g. bones and mummies). The defective sources give an unrealistically static picture of the occurence of diseases. Diseases must be seen as a dynamic relationship between populations and their environment. There is evidence suggesting great secular and regional variations in the occurrence of diseases during antiquity. Micro-organisms were by far the most serious threat to human health. We can be convinced that some diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, mumps, cancer, trauma, etc, occurred during antiquity. Available sources do not, however, permit estimation of the frequency of these conditions in different populations and time periods. We have information of the occurrence of large-scale epidemics during antiquity, e.g. the plague of Athens (431-426 B.C.), the plague of Antonines (about 165-180 A.D.) and the plague of Cyprian (about 251-266 A.D.). However, the first definitely identified large epidemic (bubonic plague) was the plague of Justinian (starting in 542 A.D.).
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Endre Hogyes, one of the most prominent and internationally known leaders in the field of medical research, a specialist on the treatment of rabies, was born one hundred and fifty years ago in Hungary. E. Hogyes started his medical career and research in 1870. In 1889 he became vice-president of the Royal Hungarian society of Natural Sciences and was elected as member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA) and member of the National Council of Public Health. The scientific career of E Hogyes was throughout closely linked to the physiological sciences. He contributed significantly in different fields of the physiological sciences. His most important scientific publications in this field deal with renal physiology, respiratory mechanics, cerebellar function and associated eye movements. Endre Hogyes was the first to organize Hungarian physiologists into a community. The "Special Physiological Conferences" were initiated within the Hungarian Royal Society of Natural Sciences in 1891. As a proof of appreciation, Hungarian physiologists and other medical professionals have proclaimed the year 1997 as a memorial year of Dr. Endre Hogyes.
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"Thales of Miletus, one of the Seven Wise Men, affirmed that the principle of all things is water; ..." The importance of water for people's health was a widely held opinion of ancient writers. The purpose of the present study was to examine: 1) ideas of the salubrity of water, 2) the organization of water supply in towns, 3) the role of water in agriculture and transport, and 4) the influence of water on public health during antiquity. The written sources indicate that ideas of the salubrity of water are connected with the general scientific level of the society. The quality of water was examined using the senses; taste, smell, appearance and temperature. In addition the health of people and animals using a water source was examined. Tasty, cool, odorless and colourless water was considered best. Stagnant, marshy water was avoided. Settling tanks, sieves, filters and boiling of water were methods used to improve the quality of water during antiquity. The available sources do not permit estimation of the effect of these methods on public health. The relatively extensive urbanization during antiquity may be attributable to the importance dedicated to the transportation of sufficient amounts of water of good quality to the towns, Baths were probably beneficial for public health in towns where an abundance of water was available. In towns where water was scarce the role of baths was probably negative for public health....
Asiatic cholera originated in India and spread to Europe in the early years of the nineteenth-century. In Britain the first cases were diagnosed late in 1831. The epidemic, reached London in February 1832. The authorities were poorly prepared for the invasion of a new epidemic and the doctors disagreed bitterly on the measures to be taken. There was little co-operation between the authorities, and the fact that the urban poor mistrusted the medical profession did not improve the situation. All this resulted in several cholera riots. These riots were not, however, as violent as those in several other cities in Europe. The 1832-33 cholera epidemic claimed 4,000 to 7,000 victims in London. It seems probable that several isolated cases of cholera occurred in London in 1852. It was not, however, until September 1853 that it was officially announced by the British authorities that a cholera epidemic was claiming victims not only in London but also in other parts of the country. During this epidemic numerous Londoners lodged complaints against nuisances in the metropolis. Yet, in most cases, the fines imposed on offenders were rather slight, since the authorities were extremely reluctant to interfere with anyone's trade or business. It was during this epidemic that John Snow, a London doctor, succeeded in tracing the epidemic to a single water pump on Broad Street in the Golden Square area. Snow did not, however, succeed in convincing the majority of his colleagues regarding the erroneous nature of the miasma theory during the epidemic of 1853/54, which cost the lives of some 12,000 people in the city area....
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This article presents various trends in the published accounts of the history of health care and some critical remarks concerning the classic history of medicine. At the end of the article some suggestions are made as to the possible role of historical consideration in the support of medical studies and the medical profession.
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In medieval universities, human dissections were in general unusual, and public dissections were moreover strictly standardized. At public anatomical lessons three persons were needed to perform an autopsy. The Lector (a lecturer) read and commented on an authoritative text, which usually was Mondino dei Liuzzi's Anatomy. The Ostensor pointed out to the sector, normally a surgeon or a barber, the part of the body to be dissected. The procedure followed the text, the truth of which was not, questioned, and what was seen in a dissected body only confirmed what was stated in the text. In his De Humani corporis fabrica Vesalius criticized both the medieval method of dissection and the dependence of anatomy on authoritative texts. Vesalius wanted to unite the roles of lector, ostensor and sector. In Vesalius's view, a lecturer on anatomy must be able to dissect a cadaver himself and trust his own eyes more than authoritative text. Relying on his own eyes Vesalius gradually began to doubt the truth of various anatomical statements found in Galen's anatomical treatises. Galen (ca. 130-200) was the greatest medical authority during the Renaissance, and he was regarded as almost infallible. In Galen's person culminated the idealism of Renaissance humanism, according to which medical truth rested solely on ancient, especially Greek, heritage. The primary task of the medical humanist was to return to the ideas of the ancients. Vesalius's attitude toward this idealism was somewhat ambiguous. On one hand he found antique evidence for the view that anatomy should be based on one's own experience achieved by dissection of human cadavers. On the other hand he was forced to question the infallibility of Galen. Vesalius solved the discrepancy between the proof of his own eyes and the humanistic ideal by pointing out that anatomy had occupied a much higher level before Galen, in ancient Alexandria, and that Galen in his anatomical works had relied too much on animal dissection....
Two private organizations, the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare and the Folkhälsan Association, established the Public Health Nursing institution in Finland in the beginning of the 1920's. These organizations laid the foundation of, developed and supervised the activities of the Public Health Nursing institution, which became statutory in 1944. They also started the training of public health nurses, which in 1931 was taken over by the state. In 1924 instructions were issued stating the duties, responsibilities and rights of the public health nurse. She had to visit each home in her district. Her main duty was to explain the principles of healthy living for the promotion of health and the prevention of disease. Although her work had a preventive nature, her duties included nursing care of the sick in their homes if needed. She also had to instruct someone in the home in nursing. The health of the family was the goal of all public health nursing. The emphasis was on nursing care during pregnancy and the care of the mother and new-born baby after delivery. Other duties were supervision of the infant and pre-school child through home visits and group conferences. Supervision of the health and habits of the school-child, including assistance in the control of communicable diseases in cooperation with physicians, school personnel and parents. Supervision of the health of adults in regard to prevention and control of communicaable diseases, especially tuberculosis. Nursing care including first aid and the promotion of health of industrial workers and their families. Teaching of first aid, home nursing and child care....
This project was initiated by the Finnish Historical Society in 1993. The reason was an increasing interest in biographies. The aim is to write 6000 Finnish biographies in 11-12 volumes. The articles are planned to be published in the beginning of the year 2000. Selected historical characters from the Middle Ages to the present day are to be described. The most influential persons in politics, economy and the church as well as in art and sport are presented in articles of 20-30 pages. Certain persons representing the economy of life of previous times are presented in shorter articles as examples of the circumstances of their days. In addition extraordinary characters considered to be of special interest to the readers are introduced. The border between the groups is indistinct. The witches from the 17th Century are, for example, both typical representatives of their time and exceptional persons as seen by modern people. Similarities between old magic and modern "alternative" medicine are also obvious. An object of special interest is women's history, which previously has been almost overlooked. Female biographies now constitute about 15% of the articles. The National Biography is also available as a net version. The first articles were opened in late 1997 in the Internet. In the field of medical science, all the most prominent persons in the history of medicine and related professions are included, beginning from the king's physician Johan Copp in the 16th century. The medical profession is extended so as to consist of university professors and scientists, practitioners and promotors of administration as well as healers.
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