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Recent research has found that children with dyslexia have increased mental health problems. However, little is known about their emotion regulation, an ability that is crucial to psychosocial and academic well-being. Often, developmental language disorder (DLD) co-occurs with dyslexia, and importantly, DLD is also associated with increased mental health problems as well as poor emotion regulation. Neither line of research on mental health has accounted for the co-occurrence of dyslexia and DLD; thus, it is possible that difficulties with emotion regulation in either population may be attributed to the co-occurrence of these problems rather than to either dyslexia or DLD occurring in isolation. We examined parent-reported emotion regulation in 278 second-grade children (Mage = 8;0 years; 124 female) with dyslexia, DLD, dyslexia+DLD or typical development (TD). Parents reported their children's emotion regulation using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2, which asks parents to rate the general frequency and disruptiveness of behaviors thought to represent emotion regulation difficulties. Results indicated that children with dyslexia were rated as having significantly worse emotion regulation difficulties on average compared to TD children, and that a higher proportion of children with dyslexia or dyslexia+DLD obtained ratings indicating elevated emotion regulation problems compared to TD children. Notably, we found no significant differences between children with DLD alone and TD children. When previous diagnoses of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder were considered, patterns of estimates for dyslexia and dyslexia+DLD were similar but no longer statistically significant. For children of this age and grade level, our findings suggest that emotion regulation difficulties are more associated with dyslexia than DLD, although we cannot elucidate whether the symptoms are due to emotional processing difficulties, insufficient executive control, or other causal factors. We discuss the need for further research on the emotional challenges of children with dyslexia and children with DLD that considers the co-occurrence of reading, language, and attention problems.

Dyslexia can be assessed using eye-tracking technology to monitor reading patterns, but challenges persist in distinguishing dyslexia-specific anomalies from those caused by other factors due to individual reading variability. To address these challenges, enhancing the Detection of Visual-Cognitive Disruptions in Automated Dyslexia Diagnosis Using Viscoelastic Constitutive Artificial Neural Networks for Eye Movement Analysis (DVDD-VCANN-EMA) is proposed. Firstly, input data is gathered from ETDD70: Eye-Tracking Dyslexia Dataset. Then the input data is pre-processed employing Continuous-Discrete Derivative-Free Extended Kalman Filter (CDDFEKF) which is utilized to clean the data and normalization. Then the pre-processed data are given to High- Order Time-Reassigned Synchrosqueezing Transform (HTSST) for feature extraction. HTSST is employed to extract relevant features such as word vectors, eye movement metrics, and saliency maps. The extracted features are input into the Viscoelastic Constitutive Artificial Neural Networks (VCANN),AQ2 classify such as dyslexic and non-dyslexic. In general, VCANN do not demonstrate the use of optimization strategies to determine weight parameters for accurately diagnosing dyslexia through eye movement analysis. Therefore, the Doll maker Optimization Algorithm (DOA) is employed in this study to optimize the weight parameters of VCANN. The proposed technique implemented in python, demonstrates substantial improvements in accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, Specificity and AUC. The DVDD-VCANN-EMA model achieves peak performance with 98.5% accuracy, 98.5% recall, and 98.5% F1-score, and the fastest computation time of 1.170 s. for effective compare with existing methods such as Dyslexia Analysis and Diagnosis according to Eye Movement (DAEM-CNN), INSIGHT: Combining Fixation Visualisations and Residual Neural Networks for Dyslexia Classification From Eye-Tracking Data (FVDEDNN) and Optimal Ensemble Learning Model for Dyslexia Prediction Based on an Adaptive Genetic Algorithm (OEDP-SVM).

Dyslexia is a common learning disability affecting language processing and literacy acquisition. In China, although prevalence rates are comparable to Western countries, awareness among teachers remains limited. Teachers are key to the early identification and support of students with dyslexia, yet many feel unprepared or hold misconceptions about the condition. This quantitative survey included 909 mainstream primary and secondary school teachers from Guangdong Province, China. A structured questionnaire assessed teachers' knowledge of developmental dyslexia, attitudes toward affected students and self-efficacy in supporting them. Teachers generally lacked sufficient knowledge of dyslexia and held notable misconceptions about its causes and interventions. Many expressed uncertainty about their ability to support students with dyslexia and showed ambivalent attitudes regarding these students' potential for improvement. Correlation and regression analyses indicated that teachers' knowledge and attitudes were significantly associated with and positively predicted their self-efficacy in teaching students with dyslexia. These findings reveal significant gaps in teachers' knowledge and confidence related to dyslexia, which may hinder effective inclusive education. The results highlight the need for targeted teacher training and professional development to address misconceptions, foster positive attitudes and enhance self-efficacy, ultimately improving support for students with dyslexia in mainstream classrooms.

Dyslexia can negatively affect attitudes such as self-concept, emotions and coping. Prior research has mainly focused on global academic self-concept and negative emotions, with limited focus on specific reading- and spelling-related self-concept, positive emotions and coping strategies. We examined the reading- and spelling-related attitudes of primary school students with (n = 90) and without (n = 1411) formally diagnosed dyslexia. Students were randomly assigned to fill out the Reading Attitudes Scales (n = 753) or the Spelling Attitudes Scales (n = 748), with which reading-/spelling-related self-concept, negative and positive emotions and (mal-)adaptive coping strategies were assessed. Findings showed that the attitudes of students with dyslexia towards reading and spelling differed from their peers without dyslexia. Students with dyslexia reported lower reading and spelling self-concept and less enjoyment of reading and spelling. For other attitudes, the patterns of findings diverged. For reading, students with dyslexia reported more anxiety and shame and more maladaptive coping than students without dyslexia. For spelling, students with dyslexia reported more worrying and rumination and support seeking. These findings call for more research into reading- and spelling-related attitudes and for integration of this information into diagnosis and intervention.

Children with dyslexia are at elevated risk of depression and anxiety. The transition from primary to secondary school may be particularly challenging given increased educational demands. Past research indicates school-connectedness may be a protective factor across this transition. We tested longitudinal relationships between dyslexia, school-connectedness, depression, and anxiety over the secondary school transition. Children (N = 208, Mage = 12.16, 58% girls, 61 with dyslexia) and their caregivers (95% mothers) completed standardised measures of school-connectedness, depression, and anxiety in Year 6, and again in Year 7 after the transition to secondary school. Mediation models tested direct and indirect effects of dyslexia on Year 7 depression and anxiety through domains of school-connectedness (whole school, peer, friend, and teacher). After adjusting for Year 6 depression, anxiety, and gender, there were no significant direct effects of dyslexia on depression or anxiety in Year 7. However, dyslexia was indirectly associated with both depression and anxiety via school- and peer-connectedness. These findings support the role of school-connectedness in supporting mental health, and suggest peer-connectedness might be an important protective factor post-transition to secondary school. Future studies should explore further change across adolescence and mental health promotion targeting school- and peer-connectedness among children with dyslexia.

Dyslexia, a prevalent learning disability, is associated with specific cognitive profiles. This study investigated the cognitive profiles of children and adolescents with dyslexia in Poland utilizing the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory to understand patterns of strengths and weaknesses. The study analyzed intelligence assessment data from 3,458 Polish children and adolescents (age 10-19 years) diagnosed with dyslexia. Data were obtained from a national research panel. Participants underwent comprehensive intelligence assessments using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5). One-sample t-tests were conducted to compare the sample's SB5 scores to population norms. Participants with dyslexia scored significantly lower than the population average across all 18 SB5 measures (subtests and IQ indices), with effect sizes ranging from small to large. The largest deficits were observed in verbal abilities (knowledge and visual-spatial processing) and specific IQ indices including verbal IQ, general IQ, knowledge IQ, visual-spatial processing IQ, and working memory IQ. The findings support the applicability of the CHC theory in understanding the cognitive profiles of individuals with dyslexia. The study highlights specific cognitive weaknesses in crystallized intelligence, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. These results challenge the reliance on the pattern of strengths and weaknesses (PSW) model as a primary diagnostic tool and underscore the importance of comprehensive cognitive assessments for individuals with dyslexia. These findings have implications for targeted interventions and a balanced approach to dyslexia diagnosis.

Individuals with developmental dyslexia frequently exhibit impairments that extend beyond reading. Numerous studies examine fine motor skill deficits in dyslexia. The current study used meta-analysis to examine whether individuals with dyslexia show differences in motor skills when compared to age-matched individuals with neurotypical development, while also exploring possible moderators of effects. We report findings of a Bayesian hierarchical meta-analysis evaluating evidence of co-occurring motor skills deficits in dyslexia, using literature spanning 5 decades (1970-2025). Included reports compared dyslexic groups with age-matched neurotypical groups on various handwriting, other graphomotor, manual dexterity, speed fine motor, and motor composite tasks (N dyslexia = 3,113, N comparison = 4,521; Mage = 12.4 years, age range: 6.2-30.8 years). After removing outliers, the data set comprised estimates from 100 studies (k), with 366 effects (m). The Bayesian hierarchical model yielded a mean estimate of medium magnitude, g = -0.56, 95% credible interval (CrI) [-0.67, -0.47], confirming that impaired motor skills often accompany dyslexia diagnosis. Results held in a subgroup analysis involving dyslexic groups confirmed to have no oral language impairments, g = -0.46, 95% CrI [-0.62, -0.31]. Meta-regression analyses indicated that group differences decreased in magnitude from childhood to adolescence but were present through adulthood. Estimates were slightly larger for Chinese than for English orthography, in keeping with the heightened importance of handwriting for character acquisition. Results align with conceptualizations of dyslexia as a multifactorial neurodevelopmental disorder. As such, fine motor tasks may be useful in clinical settings for identifying children at a heightened risk of reading difficulties and may inform efforts to develop more comprehensive interventions.

Dyslexia is a lifelong developmental condition affecting reading, with a prevalence of approximately 5% in adulthood. A small group can partially compensate for reading difficulties and achieve effective reading skills. This study explores the characteristics of this group, comparing cognitive and reading variables with typical readers and non-compensated readers with dyslexia. The study included 101 adults: 30 without dyslexia, 21 with compensated dyslexia and 50 with non-compensated dyslexia. Cognitive and linguistic tests assessed non-verbal intelligence, working memory, phonological awareness, naming speed, verbal fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, lexical decision, reading frequent words, infrequent words, pseudowords, simple text and technical text. Results showed that the compensated group performed similarly to the control group in semantic verbal fluency, vocabulary and word recognition accuracy. Significant differences emerged between controls, compensated and non-compensated groups in phonological awareness, low-frequency word reading and technical text reading. Semantic verbal fluency and phonological awareness strongly determined membership in the non-compensated group. Speed performance on phonological tasks predicted speed reading in the compensated group for tasks involving the phonological reading route. Individuals with compensated dyslexia appear to have partially compensated for phonological processing difficulties. Their better performance in demanding phonological awareness tasks differentiates them from the non-compensated group.

Students with dyslexia may produce shorter written texts with poorer content and less complex language than peers, but it remains unclear whether such differences reflect increased writing effort associated with dyslexia or co-occurring non-phonological language difficulties. Therefore, this study compared oral and written discourse skills in Swedish adolescents (11-16 years old) with dyslexia (n = 16) and typical development (n = 37). Each participant explained a sport or game of their choice-first orally and, on a later occasion, in writing. Samples were analysed for productivity, syntactic complexity, linguistic and spelling accuracy and content. No significant group differences were found in either task apart from spelling. Across groups oral samples had higher linguistic accuracy, more words and more content than written samples. The results indicate that the spelling and decoding abilities that characterise dyslexia are not associated with poorer content, productivity, complexity or accuracy of written or oral samples and highlight the importance of a thorough oral language evaluation when students present with written language difficulties beyond spelling. Future studies should compare discourse skills in adolescents with dyslexia only, dyslexia with co-occurring developmental language disorder/DLD and DLD only, to further investigate the role of non-phonological language skills in oral and written discourse production.

Dyslexia refers to difficulties in acquiring fluent reading in the absence of an intellectual deficit. In the current study, we addressed two controversial issues surrounding this disorder. Firstly, the hypothesis of an implicit learning impairment that could contribute to the development of dyslexia, and secondly, the need to distinguish reading difficulties according to IQ, the so-called discrepancy definition between reading ability and expected ability. Of relevance, it has been suggested that implicit learning is relatively independent of IQ in comparison to explicit/strategic learning. Consequently, we compared implicit sequence learning in children (8-9 years old) with dyslexia, poor readers associated with low intellectual functioning (LIF), and typically developing children (TD). Both the Dyslexia and LIF groups learned less than the TD group. Therefore, the Dyslexia group's performance supports the hypothesis of an implicit learning deficit in this population. However, the poor learning shown by the LIF group challenges the necessity of a discrepancy definition for dyslexia (poor reading despite average IQ). This paper argues that implicit learning may influence the severity of reading difficulties rather than act as a causal factor and highlights the need for further research on the usefulness of distinguishing reading difficulties based on LIF.

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is primarily attributed to phonological processing deficits, but visual-spatial processing may also shape individual variability. Relatively few studies have examined whether discrete CHC-based visual-spatial indicators provide incremental and conditional information for dyslexia classification beyond phonological and RAN-based predictors, particularly in transparent orthographies. This study tested whether visual-spatial indicators have independent and moderating effects on dyslexia classification in a transparent orthography, within a moderation (risk × protection) framework. Participants were 658 Polish-speaking, age- and sex-matched, school-aged students (329 with DD, 329 without DD). Hierarchical logistic regression models contrasted the contributions of phonological composites, RAN, and Cattell-Horn-Carroll visual-spatial (Gv) indicators-perceptual organization (PO), visual memory (VM), and visual-motor coordination (VMC)-to dyslexia status. Phonological and literacy measures were the strongest predictors. However, visual-spatial indicators showed selective effects, with perceptual organization emerging as the most robust Gv predictor, whereas VMC showed a significant but cautionary adjusted association consistent with shared-variance/suppression effects. Interaction analyses showed that higher PO and VM moderated the associations between phonological/RAN-based predictors and dyslexia classification, such that these predictors showed reduced classification strength at higher levels of PO or VM. Findings provide evidence that visual-spatial indicators are independently and conditionally associated with dyslexia classification, supporting an interaction-aware, multifactorial account of DD.

Recent advocacy efforts have resulted in 49 out of 50 U.S. states passing some form of dyslexia legislation. This legislation may serve as a starting point for educators, clinicians, and parents to advocate for universal oral language screening as well as dyslexia screening. The purpose of this exploratory study is to investigate the degree to which oral language skills are already included in existing policies. We used deductive and inductive coding procedures to identify key words related to oral language skills. We then performed document analysis on 156 legislative documents related to dyslexia to describe the following: (a) to what extent states include "language disorder" or other related terms in their descriptions of disorders encompassed by the legislation; (b) to what extent legislation includes keywords related to oral language; and (c) how language keywords are distributed across screening, intervention, preservice preparation, and professional development requirements. Two states include "language disorder" in the scope of dyslexia legislation. An additional eight states have legislation with terms that could encompass a language disorder. Out of the 49 states with dyslexia legislation, 29 include at least one language-related keyword. The most common language keywords found in such legislation were "comprehension" and "vocabulary." Keywords were mentioned across screening, intervention, preservice preparation, and professional development requirements. In many states, existing legislation lays the groundwork for implementing universal oral language skill screening. Further legislation dedicated to universal oral language screening is also necessary to ensure children with language disorders are identified early.

The study's purpose was to develop and select items for a caregiver-completed screening tool to assess children for dyslexia and developmental language disorder (DLD). Participants were recruited from community centers, schools and pediatric offices. Caregivers clicked a QR code on a flyer to access the consent and questionnaire, or contacted the research assistant to access them, and completed the screening measure designed to assess the risk of DLD and dyslexia. Then, children completed a gold-standard battery that included language, reading, phonological awareness, rapid naming, and memory measures. Participants included 149 children and their caregivers. We used unadjusted logistic regressions to estimate the predictive value of each individual survey question for dyslexia, DLD, and typical development (TD) to retain questions at p&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.05. Then, three stepwise logistic regressions were run to obtain a final, restricted model using the outcomes of dyslexia, DLD, and TD vs. any other diagnosis. Analyses indicated that the best-fitting model predicting TD vs. other groups in the combined sample included 14 items. The AUC for this set was 0.84. The specificity and sensitivity were 0.69 and 0.80, respectively. For the monolingual and bilingual samples separately, AUCs and sensitivity values were all greater than 0.80, and specificity values were 0.69 or above. The findings indicate that the 14-item screener may effectively identify children at risk for dyslexia and DLD. Further validation, including the development and testing of additional items in a large, representative sample, is needed to establish its validity at the population level.

This study provides empirical evidence on the reading and writing profile of adolescents with twice-exceptionality (2e), specifically those presenting both intellectual giftedness and dyslexia (G-D). Using a quantitative approach, the performance of the G-D group was compared with that of gifted students without dyslexia (G) and students with dyslexia without intellectual giftedness (D) in a sample of Spanish secondary school students. The results indicate that G-D adolescents exhibit a heterogeneous performance pattern across literacy-related measures, characterized by relative weaknesses in lexical and syntactic processes alongside comparatively stronger performance in semantic skills. Although they do not systematically outperform or fall behind the other groups, in specific subtests, G-D students show significantly higher scores than the D group and lower scores than the G group in global reading measures, particularly in the General Reading Index and comprehension tasks. These findings highlight the heterogeneous nature of the G-D profile and suggest that cognitive strengths associated with intellectual giftedness may partially compensate for difficulties related to dyslexia. Understanding this dual profile is essential for improving identification processes and for designing more precise and responsive interventions.

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to investigate school-based speech-language pathologists' (SLPs) perceptions of their ability and needs to identify and remediate students with dyslexia. Methods: A qualitative approach was employed, utilizing semi-structured interviews with school-based SLPs. The findings were thematically analyzed by following six steps; (a) familiarization with the data; (b) initial code generation; (c) theme identification; (d) theme review; (e) defining and naming themes; and (f) report writing. Results: The findings revealed that participants had a very limited knowledge of dyslexia, and most did not consider reading difficulties within their scope of practice. Professional development opportunities, collaboration with teachers, and administrative support were identified as crucial factors to enhance SLPs' practice supporting dyslexic cases in school settings. Conclusions: The study showed that school-based SLPs lack the necessary knowledge to work with students with dyslexia, which aligns with results observed in other countries. This finding highlights the importance of empowering their abilities to effectively support students with dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia refers to a common neurodevelopmental disorder, which impairs the accuracy and fluency of reading, and early identification is vital for initiating timely intervention. Nonetheless, the traditional methods of formal assessment are time- and resource-intensive, which limits their scalability. Machine-learning approaches and eye-tracking technologies provide objective, data-driven solutions for dyslexia screening. This research integrates current evidence on eye-movement-based and emerging multimodal computational methods for dyslexia screening, risk identification, and algorithmic classification during reading tasks. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and CINAHL were searched systematically to identify studies published between January 2015 and March 2026. Eligible studies included analysis of eye-movement obtained via eye tracking or electrooculography (EOG), with or without predictive modeling. Methodological quality was assessed using JBI, PROBAST, ROBINS-I, and COSMIN tools. Twenty-three articles were included out of 50 full-text articles screened comprising eye-movement biomarker/observational studies (n = 5), machine-learning prediction-model studies (n = 14), intervention response studies (n = 2), and reliability/feasibility studies (n = 2). The sample sizes ranged from small experimental cohorts (<20 participants) to larger datasets (>300 participants). In the literature, dyslexic readers were consistently found to exhibit longer fixation durations, increased regression behavior and reduced saccadic efficiency. Machine-learning algorithms using fixation, saccade, scan path, and signal-based features demonstrated classification accuracies ranging from approximately 80 to 95% with some studies reporting values approaching 99% under specific experimental conditions. Nevertheless, there was a significant heterogeneity in datasets, feature extraction methods, outcome definitions and validation schemes. Notably, numerous studies used proxy diagnostic labels, small or internally derived datasets, and internal cross-validation, which introduces the risk of overfitting and performance inflation. Explicit multimodal or multi-source modeling was identified in three of 23 studies involving combinations of gaze data with demographic, cognitive, linguistic, VR-bed, text-derived, saliency-map, or CNN-based features. Two additional studies used EOG as an alternative eye-movement signal modality rather than true multi-source fusion. Therefore, the evidence base remains dominated by eye-movement and gaze-derived approaches, while multimodal evidence should be interpreted as emerging and exploratory. Altogether, eye-movement based computational systems are a promising, non-invasive method for scalable dyslexia screening. PROSPERO, identifier (RD42061332527).

This longitudinal study investigated subtypes of dyslexia based on the distinction between word reading accuracy and word reading rate. Building on prior cross-sectional research, we inquired whether the cognitive profiles of these subtypes can be identified before children learn to read. A large sample of Hebrew-speaking children were assessed on phonological awareness (PA), morphological awareness (MA), and rapid automatized naming (RAN) in preschool and then followed into first grade to evaluate their reading accuracy and rate. In preschool, findings revealed two distinct subgroups: one with selective deficits in PA and MA but intact RAN (PA&#x2009;+&#x2009;MA-disabled) and another with impaired RAN but preserved PA and MA (RAN-only disabled). In first grade, as predicted, the PA&#x2009;+&#x2009;MA-disabled group demonstrated significantly lower reading accuracy compared to both the RAN-only disabled and control groups. The RAN-only subgroup exhibited slow reading but intact accuracy. However, contrary to predictions, the PA&#x2009;+&#x2009;MA-disabled group also exhibited slower reading rates. These results suggest that at the beginning of reading development, low levels of reading accuracy limit reading rate. Our study (i) supports accuracy-rate subtyping of dyslexia, (ii) reinforces the role of both PA and MA in achieving early word reading accuracy, and (iii) highlights the existence of a highly specific RAN-rate dyslexia subtype. These findings have significant implications for early diagnosis and intervention as well as the definition of dyslexia.

Research on twice-exceptional students, particularly those with co-occurring intellectual giftedness and dyslexia, remains limited and conceptually fragmented. This study examines the reading- and writing-related profiles of these students by comparing three groups: gifted students without dyslexia (G), gifted students with dyslexia (G-D), and dyslexic students without intellectual giftedness (D). The sample consisted of 133 Spanish-speaking primary school students (Grades 3-6). The results revealed a distinct and non-linear performance pattern. G-D students exhibited marked difficulties in lower-level literacy processes, including phonological and lexical processing, with a performance pattern closer to that of dyslexic peers. However, they showed relative strengths in higher-order language abilities, particularly text comprehension, oral comprehension, and written composition. The findings suggest a non-uniform profile of reading- and writing-related abilities in these students, characterized by weaknesses in several lower-level literacy processes and relative strengths in some higher-order language abilities. This pattern may contribute to the underidentification of these students across educational and clinical contexts. By providing empirical evidence from Spanish, a relatively underexplored orthographic context, this study contributes to current models of twice-exceptionality and highlights the need for more sensitive and staged identification procedures, as well as multidimensional assessment and intervention approaches that address both strengths and weaknesses.

Teachers' characteristics have been linked to their students' reading development. However, previous research has primarily focused on the early phase of reading development in Western societies. We examined the associations between teachers' knowledge of dyslexia, perceived ability to teach reading and warmth during teaching and Chinese students' reading development across primary grades. Fifty-four Chinese language arts teachers and their 1517 students in Grades 1 to 5 (mean age&#x2009;=&#x2009;8.63&#x2009;years, SD =&#x2009;1.39, 51.2% female) participated in the study. The teachers completed a questionnaire assessing their knowledge of dyslexia, perceived ability to teach reading and warmth during teaching. The students were assessed on their reading skills (sentence reading efficiency and passage reading comprehension) in the middle and at the end of the school year. Multilevel modelling showed that teachers' perceived ability to teach reading was associated with their students' reading gains over time after controlling for other teacher variables and students' age, gender and earlier reading skills. In contrast, their knowledge of dyslexia was not significantly associated with students' reading skills, either for the whole class or for lower-performing students. These findings suggest that teachers' self-efficacy (operationalized as perceived teaching ability) may play a role in Chinese students' reading development.