搜索结果：Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology

Heavy metals are well-known environmental pollutants due to their toxicity, persistence in the environment, and bioaccumulative nature. Their natural sources include weathering of metal-bearing rocks and volcanic eruptions, while anthropogenic sources include mining and various industrial and agricultural activities. Mining and industrial processing for extraction of mineral resources and their subsequent applications for industrial, agricultural, and economic development has led to an increase in the mobilization of these elements in the environment and disturbance of their biogeochemical cycles. Contamination of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems with toxic heavy metals is an environmental problem of public health concern. Being persistent pollutants, heavy metals accumulate in the environment and consequently contaminate the food chains. Accumulation of potentially toxic heavy metals in biota causes a potential health threat to their consumers including humans. This article comprehensively reviews the different aspects of heavy metals as hazardous materials with special focus on their environmental persistence, toxicity for living organisms, and bioaccumulative potential. The bioaccumulation of these elements and its implications for human health are discussed with a special coverage on fish, rice, and tobacco. The article will serve as a valuable educational resource for both undergraduate and graduate students and for researchers in environmental sciences. Environmentally relevant most hazardous heavy metals and metalloids include Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Hg, and As. The trophic transfer of these elements in aquatic and terrestrial food chains/webs has important implications for wildlife and human health. It is very important to assess and monitor the concentrations of potentially toxic heavy metals and metalloids in different environmental segments and in the resident biota. A comprehensive study of the environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals and metalloids shows that steps should be taken to minimize the impact of these elements on human health and the environment.

The importance of biodiversity (below and above ground) is increasingly considered for the cleanup of the metal contaminated and polluted ecosystems. This subject is emerging as a cutting edge area of research gaining commercial significance in the contemporary field of environmental biotechnology. Several microbes, including mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal fungi, agricultural and vegetable crops, ornamentals, and wild metal hyperaccumulating plants are being tested both in lab and field conditions for decontaminating the metalliferous substrates in the environment. As on todate about 400 plants that hyperaccumulate metals are reported. The families dominating these members are Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cyperaceae, Cunouniaceae, Fabaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Violaceae, and Euphobiaceae. Brassicaceae had the largest number of taxa viz. 11 genera and 87 species. Different genera of Brassicaceae are known to accumulate metals. Ni hyperaccumulation is reported in 7 genera and 72 species and Zn in 3 genera and 20 species. Thlaspi species are known to hyperaccumulate more than one metal i.e . T. caerulescence = Cd, Ni. Pb, and Zn; T. goesingense = Ni and Zn and T. ochroleucum = Ni and Zn and T. rotundifolium = Ni, Pb and Zn. Plants that hyperaccumulate metals have tremendous potential for application in remediation of metals in the environment. Significant progress in phytoremediation has been made with metals and radionuclides. This process involves rising of plants hydroponically and transplanting them into metal-polluted waters where plants absorb and concentrate the metals in their roots and shoots. As they become saturated with the metal contaminants, roots or whole plants are harvested for disposal. Most researchers believe that plants for phytoremediation should accumulate metals only in the roots. Several aquatic species have the ability to remove heavy metals from water, viz., water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms); pennywort ( Hydrocotyle umbellata L.) and duckweed ( Lemna minor L.). The roots of Indian mustard are effective in the removal of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn and sunflower removes Pb, U, 137 Cs, and 90 Sr from hydroponic solutions. Aquatic plants in freshwater, marine and estuarine systems act as receptacle for several metals. Hyperaccumulators accumulate appreciable quantities of metal in their tissue regardless of the concentration of metal in the soil, as long as the metal in question is present. The phytoextraction process involves the use of plants to facilitate the removal of metal contaminants from a soil matrix. In practice, metal-accumulating plants are seeded or transplanted into metal-polluted soil and are cultivated using established agricultural practices. If metal availability in the soil is not adequate for sufficient plant uptake, chelates or acidifying agents would be applied to liberate them into the soil solution. Use of soil amendments such as synthetics (ammonium thiocyanate) and natural zeolites have yielded promising results. Synthetic cross-linked polyacrylates, hydrogels have protected plant roots from heavy metals toxicity and prevented the entry of toxic metals into roots. After sufficient plant growth and metal accumulation, the above-ground portions of the plant are harvested and removed, resulting the permanent removal of metals from the site. Soil metals should also be bioavailable, or subject to absorption by plant roots. Chemicals that are suggested for this purpose include various acidifying agents, fertilizer salts and chelating materials. The retention of metals to soil organic matter is also weaker at low pH, resulting in more available metal in the soil solution for root absorption. It is suggested that the phytoextraction process is enhanced when metal availability to plant roots is facilitated through the addition of acidifying agents to the soil. Chelates are used to enhance the phytoextraction of a number of metal contaminants including Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn Researchers initially applied hyperaccumulators to clean metal polluted soils. Several researchers have screened fast-growing, high-biomass-accumulating plants, including agronomic crops, for their ability to tolerate and accumulate metals in their shoots. Genes responsible for metal hyperaccumulation in plant tissues have been identified and cloned. Glutathione and organic acids metabolism plays a key role in metal tolerance in plants. Glutathione is ubiquitous component cells from bacteria to plants and animals. In phytoremediation of metals in the environment, organic acids play a major role in metal tolerance. Organic acids acids form complexes with metals, a process of metal detoxification. Genetic strategies and transgenic plant and microbe production and field trials will fetch phytoremediaition field applications.The importance of biodiversity and biotechnology to remediate potentially toxic metals are discussed in this paper. Brassicaceae amenable to biotechnological improvement and phytoremediation hype are highlighted.

Introduction 1 1.0 Importance of sediments to aquatic trace element chemistry 1.1 Monitoring studies 1.2 Suspended versus bed sediments -utility for various types of studies 1.3 Partitioning of trace elements between dissolved and solid phases 1.4 Fluvial transport of trace elements by suspended sediments 1.5 Comparison of trace element concentrations in suspended and bottom sediments versus dissolved levels 1.6 Effect of suspended sediment concentration on fluvial transport of trace elements 1.7 Historical trace element levels 2.0 Physical and chemical factors affecting sediment-trace element chemistry 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Physical factors 2.2.1 Grain-size ranges and the effect of grain size 2.2.2 Chemical analysis of various grain sizes in bottom sediments 2.2.3 Chemical analysis of various grain sizes in suspended sediments 2.2.4 Effect of grain size on trace element concentrations in samples collected from the same and different basins 2.2.5 Comparison of samples having similar bulk chemistries but differing grain-size distributions 2.2.6 Effect of grain size on sediment-associated chemical transport at differing discharge rates 2.2.7 Measuring grain-size distributions 2.2.7.1 Differences in grain size distributions induced by using different techniques 2.2.7.2 Differences in grain size distributions induced by sample pretreatment 28 2.2.8 Effect of sediment surface area 2.2.9 Importance of surface area to sediment-trace element concentrations 2.2.10 Measuring surface area 2.3 Chemical factors 2.3.1 Cation exchange capacity 2.3.2 Composition significant sedimentary trace element collectors 2.3.2.1 Iron and manganese oxides 2.3.2.2 Organic matter 2.3.2.3 Clay minerals 2.3.3 Introduction to and utility of chemical partitioning 2.3.4 Chemical partitioning methods 2.3.4.1 Chemical partitioning -instrumental methods 2.3.4.2 Chemical partitioning ~ partial extraction methods 2.3.4.2.1 Chemical partitioning of suspended sediments by partial extraction 2.3.4.2.2 Chemical partitioning of bottom sediments by partial extraction IV 2.3.4.3 Chemical partitioning by density gradient and mineralogy 2.3.4.4 Chemical partitioning using statistical manipulation of data 2.3.4.5 Chemical partitioning using mathematical modelling 2.4 The interrelation and relative importance of selected physical and chemical factors affecting sediment-trace element chemistry 2.4.1 Relative importance of physical and chemical factors to sediment-trace element chemistry 2.4.1.1 The interrelation of grain size and surface area to each other and to sediment-trace element chemistry 2.4.1.2 The interrelation of grain size and geochemical substrate to each other and to sediment-trace element chemistry 2.4.1.3 The interrelation of surface area and geochemical substrate to each other and to sediment-trace element chemistry 2.4.2 The interrelation of grain size, surface area, and geochemical substrate to each other 2.4.3 Predicting sediment-trace element concentrations using physical and chemical factors 3.0 Sediment-trace element data manipulations 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Limitations of analytical data 3.3 Corrections for grain size differences 3.4 Carbonate corrections 3.5 Normalization to 'conservative' elements 3.6 Effects of applying corrections to sediment-trace element data 4.0 Sampling sediments 4.1 Sampling sediments general considerations 4.2 Bottom sediments 4.2.1 Sampling surficial bed sediment 4.2.2 Sampling bed sediments at depth 4.3 Suspended sediments 4.3.1 Sampling suspended sediment in fluvial environments 4.3.2 Cross-sectional spatial and temporal variations in suspended sediment and associated trace elements and their causes 4.3.2.1 Differences due to sampler type or sampling design 4.3.2.2 Horizontal variations 108 4.3.2.3 Vertical variations 4.3.2.4 Importance of silt/clay-versus sand-sized suspended sediment for trace element transport 4.3.2.5 Suspended sediment and associated trace element temporal variations during constant discharge 4.3.3.6 Suspended sediment and associated trace element temporal variations during changes in discharge 5.0 Summary and general considerations 118 Selected references Index 135

Summary The efficiency of agricultural subsidy programmes for preserving biodiversity and improving the environment has been questioned in recent years. Organic farming operates without pesticides, herbicides and inorganic fertilizers, and usually with a more diverse crop rotation. It has been suggested that this system enhances biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. We analysed the effects of organic farming on species richness and abundance using meta‐analysis of literature published before December 2002. Organic farming usually increases species richness, having on average 30% higher species richness than conventional farming systems. However, the results were variable among studies, and 16% of them actually showed a negative effect of organic farming on species richness. We therefore divided the data into different organism groups and according to the spatial scale of the study. Birds, insects and plants usually showed an increased species richness in organic farming systems. However, the number of studies was low in most organism groups (range 2–19) and there was significant heterogeneity between studies. The effect of organic farming was largest in studies performed at the plot scale. In studies at the farm scale, when organic and conventional farms were matched according to landscape structure, the effect was significant but highly heterogeneous. On average, organisms were 50% more abundant in organic farming systems, but the results were highly variable between studies and organism groups. Birds, predatory insects, soil organisms and plants responded positively to organic farming, while non‐predatory insects and pests did not. The positive effects of organic farming on abundance were prominent at the plot and field scales, but not for farms in matched landscapes. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that organic farming often has positive effects on species richness and abundance, but that its effects are likely to differ between organism groups and landscapes. We suggest that positive effects of organic farming on species richness can be expected in intensively managed agricultural landscapes, but not in small‐scale landscapes comprising many other biotopes as well as agricultural fields. Measures to preserve and enhance biodiversity should be more landscape‐ and farm‐specific than is presently the case.

Microplastics in aquatic ecosystems and especially in the marine environment represent a pollution of increasing scientific and societal concern, thus, recently a substantial number of studies on microplastics were published. Although first steps towards a standardization of methodologies used for the detection and identification of microplastics in environmental samples are made, the comparability of data on microplastics is currently hampered by a huge variety of different methodologies, which result in the generation of data of extremely different quality and resolution. This chapter reviews the methodology presently used for assessing the concentration of microplastics in the marine environment with a focus on the most convenient techniques and approaches. After an overview of non-selective sampling approaches, sample processing and treatment in the laboratory, the reader is introduced to the currently applied techniques for the identification and quantification of microplastics. The subsequent case study on microplastics in sediment samples from the North Sea measured with focal plane array (FPA)-based micro-Fourier transform infrared (micro-FTIR) spectroscopy shows that only 1.4 % of the particles visually resembling microplastics were of synthetic polymer origin. This finding emphasizes the importance of verifying the synthetic polymer origin of potential microplastics. Thus, a burning issue concerning current microplastic research is the generation of standards that allow for the assessment of reliable data on concentrations of microscopic plastic particles and the involved polymers with analytical laboratory techniques such as micro-FTIR or micro-Raman spectroscopy.

Bees are essential pollinators of many plants in natural ecosystems and agricultural crops alike. In recent years the decline and disappearance of bee species in the wild and the collapse of honey bee colonies have concerned ecologists and apiculturalists, who search for causes and solutions to this problem. Whilst biological factors such as viral diseases, mite and parasite infections are undoubtedly involved, it is also evident that pesticides applied to agricultural crops have a negative impact on bees. Most risk assessments have focused on direct acute exposure of bees to agrochemicals from spray drift. However, the large number of pesticide residues found in pollen and honey demand a thorough evaluation of all residual compounds so as to identify those of highest risk to bees. Using data from recent residue surveys and toxicity of pesticides to honey and bumble bees, a comprehensive evaluation of risks under current exposure conditions is presented here. Standard risk assessments are complemented with new approaches that take into account time-cumulative effects over time, especially with dietary exposures. Whilst overall risks appear to be low, our analysis indicates that residues of pyrethroid and neonicotinoid insecticides pose the highest risk by contact exposure of bees with contaminated pollen. However, the synergism of ergosterol inhibiting fungicides with those two classes of insecticides results in much higher risks in spite of the low prevalence of their combined residues. Risks by ingestion of contaminated pollen and honey are of some concern for systemic insecticides, particularly imidacloprid and thiamethoxam, chlorpyrifos and the mixtures of cyhalothrin and ergosterol inhibiting fungicides. More attention should be paid to specific residue mixtures that may result in synergistic toxicity to bees.

Many studies have shown that seabirds are sensitive to changes in food supply, and therefore have potential as monitors of fish stocks. For most seabird species breeding parameters suitable for biomonitoring have yet to be measured over a wide range of prey densities. However, it is clear that responses vary among species and care must be taken when interpreting seabird data as a proxy for fish abundance. For many years seabirds have also been used as monitors of pollution, especially oil pollution. Beached bird surveys provide important evidence of geographical and temporal patterns, and, for example, show consistent declines in oil release into the southern North Sea over the last 15 years. Analysis of oil on birds can now permit fingerprinting of sources, allowing prosecution of polluters. As predators high in marine food webs, seabirds also have potential as monitors of pollutants that accumulate at trophic levels. Recent work on mercury in seabirds has permitted an analysis of spatial patterns and of the rates of increase in mercury contamination of ecosystems over the last 150 years, since mercury concentrations in feathers of museum specimens can be used to assess contamination in the birds when they were alive. Surprisingly, pelagic seabirds show higher increases than most coastal ones, and increases have been greatest in seabirds feeding on mesopelagic prey. This seems to relate to patterns of methylation of mercury in low-oxygen, deeper water. Accurate measurement of long-term trends in mercury contamination depend on the assumption that seabird diet composition has not changed. This can be assessed by analysis of stable isotopes of N and C from the same feathers used for mercury measurement, a technique that also permits the monitoring of trophic status over time or between regions. While high mercury contamination of seabirds in the southern North Sea is unsurprising, we cannot yet explain certain unexpected results, such as high levels in seabirds from north Iceland compared with those from south Iceland or Scotland.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a hazard prioritisation for reported chemical constituents of cigarette smoke using toxicological risk assessment principles and assumptions. The purpose is to inform prevention efforts using harm reduction. DATA SOURCES: International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs; California and US Environmental Protection Agency cancer potency factors (CPFs) and reference exposure levels; scientific journals and government reports from the USA, Canada, and New Zealand. STUDY SELECTION: This was an inclusive review of studies reporting yields of cigarette smoke constituents using standard ISO methods. DATA EXTRACTION: Where possible, the midpoint of reported ranges of yields was used. DATA SYNTHESIS: Data on 158 compounds in cigarette smoke were found. Of these, 45 were known or suspected human carcinogens. Cancer potency factors were available for 40 of these compounds and reference exposure levels (RELs) for non-cancer effects were found for 17. A cancer risk index (CRI) was calculated by multiplying yield levels with CPFs. A non-cancer risk index (NCRI) was calculated by dividing yield levels with RELs. Gas phase constituents dominate both CRI and NCRI for cigarette smoke. The contribution of 1,3-butadiene (BDE) to CRI was more than twice that of the next highest contributing carcinogen (acrylonitrile) using potencies from the State of California EPA. Using those potencies from the USEPA, BDE ranked third behind arsenic and acetaldehyde. A comparison of CRI estimates with estimates of smoking related cancer deaths in the USA showed that the CRI underestimates the observed cancer rates by about fivefold using ISO yields in the exposure estimate. CONCLUSIONS: The application of toxicological risk assessment methods to cigarette smoke provides a plausible and objective framework for the prioritisation of carcinogens and other toxicant hazards in cigarette smoke. However, this framework does not enable the prediction of actual cancer risk for a number of reasons that are discussed. Further, the lack of toxicology data on cardiovascular end points for specific chemicals makes the use of this framework less useful for cardiovascular toxicity. The bases for these priorities need to be constantly re-evaluated as new toxicology information emerges.

Thallium is released into the biosphere from both natural and anthropogenic sources. It is generally present in the environment at low levels; however, human activity has greatly increased its content. Atmospheric emission and deposition from industrial sources have resulted in increased concentrations of thallium in the vicinity of mineral smelters and coal-burning facilities. Increased levels of thallium are found in vegetables, fruit and farm animals. Thallium is toxic even at very low concentrations and tends to accumulate in the environment once it enters the food chain. Thallium and thallium-based compounds exhibit higher water solubility compared to other heavy metals. They are therefore also more mobile (e.g. in soil), generally more bioavailable and tend to bioaccumulate in living organisms. The main aim of this review was to summarize the recent data regarding the actual level of thallium content in environmental niches and to elucidate the most significant sources of thallium in the environment. The review also includes an overview of analytical methods, which are commonly applied for determination of thallium in fly ash originating from industrial combustion of coal, in surface and underground waters, in soils and sediments (including soil derived from different parent materials), in plant and animal tissues as well as in human organisms.

Heavy metals are toxic metals having density five times greater than water. They are toxic for all living organisms. In humans they enter into body through various ways like ingestion, absorption etc. They become harmful when their accumulation rate is more than their discharge. They accumulate gradually in body over a long time and are toxic. Heavy metal contamination is a major problem in environment and of medium sized cities due to anthropogenic activities. Human activities may contribute largely in their production such as burning of fossil fuel, mining and use of many chemical for crop growth etc. Waste water also contains heavy metal and when it is applied to crops it can cause threat to soil and plants growing in that soil. Waste water health risks can be determined by different indices. Generally, heavy metals cannot be removed from waste water and when they enter into the soil, interfere with the plant roots -these plants when eaten by animals or humans they enter into food chain. Plants along with other nutrients also uptake lead and cadmium; their accumulation may be effected by the concentration time of exposure and climatic factor. Heavy metals affect the quality and production of crop and influence atmospheric and water quality. These contamination are important and of concern because of increasing demand for food safety. There are different sources for heavy metal such as natural and manmade, as industries and air borne sources. These heavy metals have severe effects on plants, animals, humans and ultimately on environment.

1 A growing number of ecologists are turning to the enumeration of white blood cells from blood smears (leukocyte profiles) to assess stress in animals. There has been some inconsistency and controversy in the ecological literature, however, regarding their interpretation. The inconsistencies may stem partly from a lack of information regarding how stress affects leukocytes in different taxa, and partly from a failure on the part of researchers in one discipline to consult potentially informative literature from another. 2 Here, we seek to address both issues by reviewing the literature on the leukocyte response to stress, spanning the taxa of mammals (including humans), birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish. 3 We show that much of the early literature points to a close link between leukocyte profiles and glucocorticoid levels. Specifically, these hormones act to increase the number and percentage of neutrophils (heterophils in birds and reptiles), while decreasing the number and percentage of lymphocytes. This phenomenon is seen in all five vertebrate taxa in response to either natural stressors or exogenous administration of stress hormones. For the ecologist, therefore, high ratios of heterophils or neutrophils to lymphocytes (‘H : L’ or ‘N : L’ ratios) in blood samples reliably indicate high glucocorticoid levels. Furthermore, this close relationship between stress hormones and N : L or H : L ratios needs to be highlighted more prominently in haematological assessments of stress, as it aids the interpretation of results. 4 As with hormone assays, there are challenges to overcome in the use of leukocytes profiles to assess levels of stress; however, there are also advantages to this approach, and we outline each. Given the universal and consistent nature of the haematological response to stress, plus the overwhelming evidence from the veterinary, biomedical and ecological literature reviewed here, we conclude that this method can provide a reliable assessment of stress in all vertebrate taxa.

Abstract Galgani, F., Hanke, G., Werner, S., and De Vrees, L. 2013. Marine litter within the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 70: 1055–1064. There have been numerous anthropogenic-driven changes to our planet in the last half-century. One of the most evident changes is the ubiquity and abundance of litter in the marine environment. The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD, 2008/56/EC) establishes a framework within which EU Member States shall take action to achieve or maintain good environmental status (GES) of their marine waters by 2020. GES is based on 11 qualitative descriptors as listed in Annex I of the MSFD. Descriptor 10 (D 10) concerns marine litter. As a follow-up to the related Commission Decision on criteria and methodological standards (2010/477/EU) in which 56 indicators for the achievement of GES are proposed, the EC Directorate-General for the Environment, on the request of the European Marine Directors, established a Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter (TSG ML) under the Working Group on GES. The role of TSG ML is to support Member States through providing scientific and technical background for the implementation of MSFD requirements with regard to D 10. Started in 2011, TSG ML provides technical recommendations for the implementation of the MSFD requirements for marine litter. It summarizes the available information on monitoring approaches and considers how GES and environmental targets could be defined with the aim of preventing further inputs of litter to, and reducing its total amount in, the marine environment. It also identifies research needs, priorities and strategies in support of the implementation of D 10. The work of TSG ML also focuses on the specification of monitoring methods through the development of monitoring protocols for litter in the different marine compartments, and for microplastics and litter in biota. Further consideration is being given to monitoring strategies in general and associated costs. Other priorities include the identification of sources of marine litter and a better understanding of the harm caused by marine litter.

Agricultural contamination with pesticides and antibiotics is a challenging problem that needs to be fully addressed. Bee products, such as honey, are widely consumed as food and medicine and their contamination may carry serious health hazards. Honey and other bee products are polluted by pesticides, heavy metals, bacteria and radioactive materials. Pesticide residues cause genetic mutations and cellular degradation and presence of antibiotics might increase resistant human or animal's pathogens. Many cases of infant botulisms have been attributed to contaminated honey. Honey may be very toxic when produced from certain plants. Ingestion of honey without knowing its source and safety might be problematic. Honey should be labeled to explore its origin, composition, and clear statement that it is free from contaminants. Honey that is not subjected for analysis and sterilization should not be used in infants, and should not be applied to wounds or used for medicinal purposes. This article reviews the extent and health impact of honey contamination and stresses on the introduction of a strict monitoring system and validation of acceptable minimal concentrations of pollutants or identifying maximum residue limits for bee products, in particular, honey.

Certain Phthalate esters have been shown to produce reproductive toxicity in male rodents with an age dependent sensitivity in effects with foetal animals being more sensitive than neonates which are in turn more sensitive than pubertal and adult animals. While the testicular effects of phthalates in rats have been known for more than 30 years, recent attention has been focused on the ability of these agents to produce effects on reproductive development in male offspring after in utero exposure. These esters and in particular di-butyl, di-(2-ethylhexyl) and butyl benzyl phthalates have been shown to produce a syndrome of reproductive abnormalities characterized by malformations of the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, external genitalia (hypospadias), cryptorchidism and testicular injury together with permanent changes (feminization) in the retention of nipples/areolae (sexually dimorphic structures in rodents) and demasculinization of the growth of the perineum resulting in a reduced anogenital distance (AGD). Critical to the induction of these effects is a marked reduction in foetal testicular testosterone production at the critical window for the development of the reproductive tract normally under androgen control. A second Leydig cell product, insl3, is also significantly down regulated and is likely responsible for the cryptorchidism commonly seen in these phthalate-treated animals. The testosterone decrease is mediated by changes in gene expression of a number of enzymes and transport proteins involved in normal testosterone biosynthesis and transport in the foetal Leydig cell. Alterations in the foetal seminiferous cords are also noted after in utero phthalate treatment with the induction of multinucleate gonocytes that contribute to lowered spermatocyte numbers in postnatal animals. The phthalate syndrome of effects on reproductive development has parallels with the reported human testicular dysgenesis syndrome, although no cause and effect relationship exists after exposure of humans to phthalate esters. However humans are exposed to and produce the critical phthalate metabolites that have been detected in blood of the general population, in children and also human amniotic fluid.

Most fungi are able to produce several mycotoxins simultaneously; moreover food and feed can be contaminated by several fungi species at the same time. Thus, humans and animals are generally not exposed to one mycotoxin but to several toxins at the same time. Most of the studies concerning the toxicological effect of mycotoxins have been carried out taking into account only one mycotoxin. In the present review, we analysed 112 reports where laboratory or farm animals were exposed to a combination of mycotoxins, and we determined for each parameter measured the type of interaction that was observed. Most of the published papers concern interactions with aflatoxins and other mycotoxins, especially fumonisins, ochratoxin A and trichothecenes. A few papers also investigated the interaction between ochratoxin A and citrinin, or between different toxins from Fusarium species. Only experiments with a 2×2 factorial design with individual and combined effects of the mycotoxins were selected. Based on the raw published data, we classified the interactions in four different categories: synergistic, additive, less than additive or antagonistic effects. This review highlights the complexity of mycotoxins interactions which varies according to the animal species, the dose of toxins, the length of exposure, but also the parameters measured.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is a key enzyme in the nervous system. It terminates nerve impulses by catalysing the hydrolysis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine. As a specific molecular target of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides, acetylcholinesterase activity and its inhibition has been early recognized to be a human biological marker of pesticide poisoning. Measurement of AChE inhibition has been increasingly used in the last two decades as a biomarker of effect on nervous system following exposure to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides in occupational and environmental medicine. The success of this biomarker arises from the fact that it meets a number of characteristics necessary for the successful application of a biological response as biomarker in human biomonitoring: the response is easy to measure, it shows a dose-dependent behavior to pollutant exposure, it is sensitive, and it exhibits a link to health adverse effects. The aim of this work is to review and discuss the recent findings about acetylcholinesterase, including its sensitivity to other pollutants and the expression of different splice variants. These insights open new perspective for the future use of this biomarker in environmental and occupational human health monitoring.

Trace heavy metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, chromium, nickel, and mercury, are important environmental pollutants, particularly in areas with high anthropogenic pressure. In addition to these metals, copper, manganese, iron, and zinc are also important trace micronutrients. The presence of trace heavy metals in the atmosphere, soil, and water can cause serious problems to all organisms, and the ubiquitous bioavailability of these heavy metal can result in bioaccumulation in the food chain which especially can be highly dangerous to human health. This study reviews the heavy metal contamination in several areas of Pakistan over the past few years, particularly to assess the heavy metal contamination in water (ground water, surface water, and waste water), soil, sediments, particulate matter, and vegetables. The listed contaminations affect the drinking water quality, ecological environment, and food chain. Moreover, the toxicity induced by contaminated water, soil, and vegetables poses serious threat to human health.