Osteoarthritis (OA) is multifactorial degenerative joint diseases with high incidence and heavy burden on human health and the world economy. Conventional approaches to combat OA have certain therapeutic efficacy. However, these treatments can inadvertently harm healthy tissues and lead to various complication. Biomaterials have emerged as a promising alternative due to their enhanced effectiveness, precise targeting, and spatiotemporal controllability. Despite these benefits, synthetic biomaterials - particularly inorganic nanomaterials used as drug delivery vehicles or direct therapeutic agents (e.g., ROS-scavenging nanozymes, lubricants, and photothermal platforms) - still face challenges such as rapid synovial clearance, limited cartilage penetration, and potential biocompatibility concerns, which have impeded their broader clinical application in OA treatment. To address these limitations, cell-based biomaterials leverage the intrinsic properties of cells-such as chemotaxis, homing ability, and biocompatibility-to design advanced therapeutic systems tailored for joint microenvironments. In this review, we first provide an analysis of OA abnormalities, including biophysical, cellular, and biochemical aspects. Then, we describe the design principles of cell-based biomaterials based on these abnormalities. Afterwards, we summarize various varieties of cell-based biomaterials and the recent advances of their applications in OA treatment. Finally, we explore the current challenges and prospects of cell-based biomaterials.
Fertility preservation for women undergoing gonadotoxic treatments remains a critical clinical challenge. Ovarian tissue(OT) cryopreservation and transplantation are promising strategies. This review aims to map the biomaterials used in OT culture and cryopreservation, identify key knowledge gaps, and outline future research directions. Following the Arksey&O'Malley (2005) framework and the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, a literature search was conducted on PubMed and Web of Science. The review protocol was prospectively registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF.IO/NRZM7). Of 3,217 studies, 41 were included in the analysis: 32 were in vivo studies, 8 were in vitro, and 1 was clinical. The main biomaterials used for OT culture and cryopreservation included fibrin, alginate, collagen, hyaluronic acid, and extracellular matrix. Key preservation strategies involve encapsulating OT within biomaterial-based systems and enriching culture media with biomaterials. Hydrogels have demonstrated advantages by providing structural scaffolding and facilitating the diffusion of oxygen, nutrients, and bioactive supplements, thereby promoting angiogenesis and supporting OT functional restoration. Growing interest was noted in combinatorial approaches that integrate multiple biomaterials with stem cells, plasma proteins, and growth or antioxidant factors to enhance folliculogenesis and restore oestrous cycles. Despite progress, critical challenges persist, including capsule disintegration and the associated risk of immune sensitisation, as well as limited understanding of long-term tissue revascularisation and OT-biomaterial interactions. Overall, biobased materials strategies, particularly hydrogels, show promise for improving OT preservation and functionality, but further research is needed to optimise these materials and understand their long-term implications for fertility outcomes. Among the included studies, only one was a clinical study; the rest consisted of in vivo animal models and in vitro experiments. This limitation should be recognised, as it prevents direct application of the results to clinical practice. Consequently, further clinical research is crucial to confirm these strategies and facilitate their safe and effective implementation in fertility preservation protocols.
The selection of biomaterial is crucial for the long-term success of implants. Materials that perform an adequate function and reduce negative biological responses should be taken. Due to their good mechanical strength, stainless steel, titanium, and Co-based alloys have been utilized for implant purposes; however, their permanent nature and very low corrosion rates may lead to long-term clinical complications. Researchers are looking for biomaterials that combine suitable mechanical properties with controlled and uniform degradation behaviour. In the last decade, magnesium and iron-based alloys have been seen as a good alternative and examined as promising biodegradable metals for implant applications. However, their excessively rapid corrosion (Mg) or extremely slow degradation (Fe) imposes significant limitations on their clinical applicability. In recent times, zinc-based alloys have been seen as new materials that will challenge magnesium and iron-based alloys. Zn2+ions released from zinc metal corrosion play a crucial role in bone metabolism, enzymatic activity, and cellular proliferation. However, the low mechanical strength and limited ductility of pure zinc restrict its direct utilization in load-bearing implants. Therefore, the fabrication of high-strength and ductile zinc-based alloys while maintaining biocompatibility and suitable corrosion rate remains a main research challenge. This article critically assesses and compares the mechanical properties, corrosion behaviour, and biocompatibility of magnesium-, zinc-, and titanium-based alloys, and inspects the impact of advanced fabrication methods, particularly additive manufacturing, on microstructure evolution and implant performance.
At present, most biological valves used for clinical application are created using glutaraldehyde (GLUT) cross-linked animal pericardia or aortic valve materials. Since GLUT cannot cross-link with elastin, which would be further degraded and absorbed by the body after being implanted into the body, structural damage and calcification of biological valves can occur. In this study, we proposed a new elastin cross-linking agent, dihydromyricetin (DMY). We evaluated the characteristics of DMY in different treatment groups and in rat animal models. Using circular dichroism (CD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance hydrogen spectroscopy, we confirmed that DMY can cross-link with elastin and then enhances its anti-elastase hydrolysis ability with the bovine pericardium (BP) and internal mammary artery (IMA). The subcutaneous implantation of young rats confirmed that the addition of DMY on samples reduced the calcification degree of GLUT cross-linked BP by nearly 40%, and the implanted pericardial elastin component remained stable after 8 weeks. In summary, DMY can fix the components of BP elastin without affecting the mechanical strength of GLUT-cross-linked valve materials, proving that it is a safe and stable elastin cross-linking agent.
Scaffold based periodontal tissue engineering offers a promising strategy for regenerating tissues destroyed by periodontitis, for which conventional treatments fall short. An ideal scaffold must not only possess good biocompatibility to establish a regenerative microenvironment but also address the complex pathological features of periodontitis, including persistent bacterial infection, hyperactive immune-inflammatory responses, and the demand for bone defect repair. Natural marine polysaccharides (such as alginate, carrageenan, fucoidan, chitin and its derivatives, and hyaluronic acid) exhibt excellent biocompatibility and degradability, along with inherent antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and osteogenic properties, making them highly suited to the pathological demands of periodontal regeneration. Although these five classes of materials differ in chemical composition, they all combine intrinsic bioactivity with abundant modifiable sites, making them an ideal platform for constructing multifunctional periodontal regeneration scaffolds. Based on this, this review focuses on the microstructural characteristics and structure-activity relationships of marine polysaccharide, systematically summarizing their applications and research progress in the design of periodontal tissue regeneration scaffolds.
Skin injuries, particularly severe injuries, such as full-thickness wounds or surgical sites, are susceptible to bacterial infection. Materials composed of keratin proteins have been investigated for use in wound dressings, and at least two products based on these materials have received FDA clearance for treating radiation dermatitis via the 510(k) mechanism. We hypothesized that hydrogels composed of oxidatively extracted keratins, known as keratose, could achieve sustained release of several classes of antibiotic drugs that might improve the performance of keratins as wound dressing materials. Reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography methods were developed to quantify release of ciprofloxacin, cefazolin, and neomycin antibiotics from keratose hydrogels. Nearly 100% of ciprofloxacin and cefazolin were released from the hydrogels within 7 d, while only approximately 20% of neomycin was released. In a combination keratose hydrogel containing neomycin and cefazolin, the amount of cefazolin release decreased (compared to hydrogels with only cefazolin) to about 60% over 7 d whereas neomycin release increased (compared to hydrogels with only neomycin) to nearly 30%. The antibiotics released from the hydrogels inhibited growth of gram-positive (S. aureus) and gram-negative (P. aeruginosa) bacteria in anin vitrobroth inhibition assay. Keratose hydrogels containing a combination of the first-line antibiotics neomycin and cefazolin inhibitedS. aureusfor 18 d andP. aeruginosafor 6 d which was comparable to or better than hydrogels containing broad-spectrum ciprofloxacin that had effect for 11 d. This work suggests that modification of keratin biomaterials with antibiotics may enhance their utility by inhibiting bacterial infections.
Human tissues deteriorate over time and may not regenerate naturally, motivating the development of bioactive materials capable of stimulating tissue repair. Since the discovery of Bioglass 45S5®, this material has been widely recognized as a benchmark for bone regeneration due to its high bioactivity and ability to bond with living tissues. However, its tendency to crystallize during processing can compromise bioactivity and limit mechanical performance, posing a challenge for applications requiring both biological effectiveness and structural reliability. In this context, compositional modifications have emerged as a promising strategy to overcome these limitations. This study investigates the effect of adding magnesium oxide (MgO) and strontium oxide (SrO) to the Bioglass 45S5® composition, aiming to enhance mechanical properties while preserving bioactivity. Modified bioglass compositions were synthesized by the melt-quenching method, followed by controlled thermal treatments to obtain corresponding biovitroceramics. The materials were characterized using differential thermal analysis, x-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy to evaluate thermal behavior, phase transformations, and structural vibration. Mechanical properties were assessed through hardness and instrumented indentation tests, while biological performance was evaluated byin vitroassays, including cell viability and morphological analyses. The results demonstrate that the incorporation of MgO and SrO leads to improved mechanical properties compared to the reference Bioglass 45S5®, without inducing cytotoxic effects. These findings indicate that MgO and SrO modified bioglasses are promising candidates for biomedical applications, particularly in bone tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
Biodegradable polylactic acid-based microspheres have been widely used in biomedical applications such as drug delivery and tissue engineering, however, most of the microspheres typically possess simple surface structures, lacking bioactivity and the ability to promote cell adhesion. Our group previously synthesized poly (L-lactic acid) magnesium-doped microspheres (PMg) with immunomodulatory and osteogenic potential. However, several drawbacks of PMgs, such as high hydrophobicity, a narrow pore distribution and large average particle size, and limited sustainable Mg2+release, can affect cell adhesion and growth and thus restricting their biomedical applications. To address these limitations, in the current study, a poly (lactic acid)-poly (ethylene glycol)-poly (lactic acid) (PLEL) triblock copolymer was synthesized, and magnesium-incorporated PLEL porous microspheres (PEMg) were prepared through emulsion solvent evaporation combined with anin-situdoping method. Benefiting from hydrophilic PEG segments, PEMg displayed significantly improved surface wettability and structural stability. The optimized PEMg possessed nearly half of the average size of PMg. and an interconnected hierarchical larger pore structure (1-30 μm, average: 10 ± 1.4 μm), which effectively promoted cell adhesion and deep infiltration. Moreover, PEMg showed a sustained Mg2+release which is nearly 1.87-fold higher than PMg, capable of neutralizing acidic by-products and stabilizing the local microenvironment. The biocompatible PEMg could upregulate anti-inflammatory biomarkers (Arg-1, CD206) and inhibit pro-inflammatory factors (iNOS, TNF-α), achieving over 1.5 times anti-inflammatory capacity of PMg. In summary, the creatively developed PEMg microspheres integrate optimized structural features and enhanced biological performances. Compared with PMg, PEMg showed much better potential to satisfy the complex demands of tendon soft tissue repair and presents promising prospects for inflammatory microenvironment regulation and soft tissue regeneration.
The research and development of artificial bone materials has become the focus of clinical bone tissue engineering research. Currently, surface modification is often used to give titanium excellent bone regeneration ability and antibacterial properties without changing its mechanical properties and biocompatibility. In this study, ZnO/BT coating (ZnO/BT-Ti) was successfully prepared on pure Ti surface by hydrothermal, in order to obtain titanium based artificial bone material with excellent osteogenic and antibacterial properties. ZnO/BT coating material did not show obvious cytotoxicity, and the coating material used in this study had good cytocompatibility. Compared with Ti, BT-Ti effectively promoted the expression of osteoblast-related genes and proteins in MC3T3-E1 cells, and ZnO/BT coating material further enhanced the promotion of bone differentiation of cells. Additionally, ZnO/BT-Ti significantly inhibited the proliferation of P.g and the formation of biofilm. Therefore, ZnO/BT composite ceramic coating has a synergistic effect on osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells, and significant antibacterial properties, providing the preliminary experimental support for the development of new artificial bone materials.
Injury to the growth plate, a cartilage tissue found at the ends of children's long bones that is responsible for bone elongation, can result in bony repair tissue (or bony bar). The bony bar connects bone on both sides of the growth plate, preventing normal bone elongation. This can lead to abnormal growth and if severe, complete growth arrest. While surgical resection of this bar is performed clinically, the interpositional materials used to replace it are susceptible to bony bar reformation. Here, we developed a novel interpositional material based on a biodegradable,in situphotopolymerizable, biomimetic hydrogel with tethered TGFβ3.In vitrostudies with rat mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) encapsulated in the hydrogel and cultured for 9 weeksin vitroshowed that tethered TGFβ3 led to a hyaline-like cartilage with collagen type II, while soluble TGFβ3 produced tissue characteristic of fibrocartilage, confirmed by collagen type I. Treatment of a rat growth plate injury with the TGFβ3-tethered hydrogel with or without MSCs decreased bony bar formation and showed evidence of cartilage-like tissue after four weeks, while addition of MSCs promoted limb lengthening. This hydrogel with tethered TGFβ3 offers an innovative treatment for growth plate injuries by acting as an interpositional material that resists bony bar formation and restores growth.
Intervertebral disc degeneration pathogenesis involves chronic inflammation and cell death, highlighting the need for targeted therapeutic strategies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as promising bioactive materials for designing therapeutic approach. In this study, we demonstrate that youthful-state EVs (Y-EVs) outperform aged donor-derived EVs (O-EVs) in resolving inflammatory cascades within nucleus pulposus (NP) cells. EVs from young rats significantly suppressed TNF-α-induced inflammation in NP cells by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, inhibiting extracellular matrix catabolism, and ameliorating rat disc degenerationin vivo. Mechanistically, CD55 enrichment in Y-EVs attenuated NF-κB pathway activation, thereby disrupting inflammatory transcriptional programs. CD55 knockdown abrogated the anti-inflammatory efficacy of Y-EV, confirming its functional necessity. Besides, we identified thioredoxin (TRX) as a critical suppressor of NLRP1 inflammasome activation via direct protein binding, which inhibited NP cell pyroptosis. Crucially, CD55 in Y-EVs facilitated TRX-mediated NLRP1 suppression, whereas O-EVs failed to upregulate TRX or suppress the NLRP1 inflammasome. This study highlights the age-dependent functional divergence of EV bioactivity and establishes CD55 as a key determinant of their therapeutic superiority. The TRX-NLRP1 interaction represents a novel target for disc degeneration intervention, positioning youthful-state EVs as an optimized bioactive material for disc regeneration strategies.
Up to 40% of women with breast cancer will require a mastectomy, and breast reconstruction is routinely offered to restore symmetry. While not all women want, or are suitable for, breast reconstruction, many want to be symmetrical following breast cancer surgery. For these women, contralateral mastectomy for 'flat symmetry' is a good alternative, but in the UK, access to contralateral 'symmetrising' mastectomy (CSM) is highly variable. Many women seeking this option describe feeling frustrated, unsupported and having to 'fight' to access care, while clinicians express concerns about decisional regret. The FLAME (FLat symmetry After Mastectomy for brEast cancer) study aims to work with key stakeholders to co-develop a consensus-based pathway to improve access and outcomes for women seeking CSM as an alternative to breast reconstruction after a unilateral mastectomy for breast cancer. Pathway development will be underpinned by the Medical Research Council (MRC) framework for the development of complex interventions, informed by the Behaviour Change Wheel and Capability, Opportunity, Motivation-Behaviour framework, complemented by Intervention Mapping. There will be six key stages: (1) creation of a logic model of the issues that need to be addressed with the CSM pathway using a systematic literature review, national practice surveys and qualitative interviews with key stakeholders; (2) definition of the logic model of change objectives (performance objectives, change determinants and change objectives); (3) pathway design informed by appropriate behaviour change techniques; (4) co-development of the pathway in a co-design workshop involving key stakeholders; (5) co-development of an implementation plan and (6) future evaluation. Ethical approval has been obtained from the University of Bristol Research Ethics Review Committee (ref: 27961). Written and verbal informed consent will be obtained from all participants before the interview study and again from individuals participating in the workshop. Findings will be presented at national/international meetings and published in peer-reviewed journals. Dissemination materials will be co-produced with key stakeholders and shared widely with professional associations and patient support organisations to promote uptake and implementation.
Effective wound repair requires a tightly regulated balance of cellular and molecular processes; however, conventional dressings primarily provide passive protection and often fail to actively guide tissue regeneration. Electrospun nanofibers have emerged as promising biomaterials due to their nanoscale architecture that mimics the extracellular matrix and their capacity for controlled therapeutic delivery. This review examines recent strategies designed to enhance the structural stability, mechanical performance, and biological functionality of electrospun nanofibers for advanced wound healing applications. Recent literature was evaluated to identify key material design approaches, supramolecular interactions, and post-fabrication modifications that improve scaffold performance and therapeutic outcomes. Native electrospun nanofibers are limited by instability in moist environments, insufficient mechanical resilience, and unpredictable release kinetics. Emerging solutions include structural modifications such as fiber alignment, multilayered architectures, and wettability tuning, as well as supramolecular strategies leveraging hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, and hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance. Post-fabrication techniques, including plasma activation, layer-by-layer assembly, UV crosslinking, and hybrid composite formation, further enable the incorporation of antimicrobial, antioxidant, angiogenic, and immunomodulatory functionalities. These advances transform electrospun scaffolds from passive barriers into interactive platforms capable of regulating the wound microenvironment. By linking material design to biological outcomes, this review provides a framework for the rational development of next-generation multifunctional electrospun nanofibers with the potential to accelerate tissue repair and improve healing quality.
In recent years, nanoparticles have become key carriers for cancer diagnosis and therapy. In this study, chromium-doped zinc gallium oxide nanomaterials (ZnGa2O4:Cr3+, ZGC) with uniform morphology were synthesized via a one-step hydrothermal method. A nano drug delivery platform (mZGC/DOX/ICG; mZGC: ZnGa2O4:Cr3+@ SiO2; DOX: Doxorubicin, ICG: Indocyanine Green) was successfully constructed based on ZGC, using Stöber method and electrostatic layer-by-layer self-assembly to enhance anti-tumor effect. The drug loading capacities (DLC%) for DOX and ICG were (54.11 ± 0.21)% and (45.9 ± 0.68)%, and the encapsulation efficiencies (EE%) were (56.18 ± 0.77)% and (94.01 ± 0.13)%, respectively. More notably, the release behavior of DOX from mZGC/DOX/ICG exhibited pH and temperature responsive characteristics. Meanwhile, the platform demonstrated good photothermal properties, drug release performance, blood compatibility, and anti-tumor effects superior to chemotherapy or photothermal therapy alone. It holds great potential for localized tumor therapy and is expected to be used in further anti-tumor research.
Bacteria-mammalian cell co-cultures can provide information on host-cell responses to biomaterials under bacterial challenge that is not available from separate monocultures. This study established a two-stage osteogenic cell-Staphylococcus aureusco-culture for assessment of a previously developed dual and sequential drug delivery system (DDS) designed to release gentamicin followed by alendronate. MG-63 cells were initially exposed toCFU/ml ofS. aureusfor different periods. An inoculum ofCFU/ml and a 2 h exposure were selected because MG-63 metabolic activity did not differ significantly from the monoculture control at this time point (p> 0.05). These conditions were subsequently transferred to primary human bone-marrow mesenchymal stromal cells. The DDS-containing co-culture exhibited an increasing resazurin signal over 16 d and maintained adherent cells with an organised F-actin cytoskeleton. On day 25, protein-normalised alkaline phosphatase activity was 40 mol µg-1protein in the DDS-containing co-culture, compared with 5 mol µg-1protein in the basal-medium control and 63 mol µg-1protein in the osteogenic-medium control. The model supports preliminary assessment of mammalian-cell compatibility and osteogenic-associated activity during sequential drug release under an initial bacterial challenge.
Natural tissues possess structurally organized architectures that enable specialized mechanical and functional behaviors. Anisotropy, defined as the directional dependence of material properties, is a key characteristic observed across a wide range of biological tissues, including bone, tendon, cartilage, and vascular systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of anisotropy in native tissues by systematically analyzing its structural origins, including collagen fiber orientation, hierarchical organization, and gradient distributions. The degree and functional significance of anisotropy across different tissues are comparatively discussed to establish design benchmarks for scaffold fabrication. Conventional fabrication methods, including freeze-casting, mechanical anchoring, and electrospinning, are evaluated for their ability to induce anisotropy, although they remain constrained by restricted architectural control and scalability. Furthermore, advanced techniques such as additive manufacturing offer enhanced precision and tunability for engineering anisotropic scaffolds. Finally, emerging hybrid strategies that combine multiple fabrication principles provide promising solutions to overcome these limitations and achieve complex, tissue-mimetic architectures. Ultimately, this work presents a robust framework for designing next-generation anisotropic scaffolds that bridge the gap between natural tissues and engineered constructs.
The development of effective treatment strategies against head and neck cancer (HNC) poses a significant challenge due to the heterogeneity of HNC and the limitations of traditional two-dimensional (2D)in vitrocell cultures. Consequently, there is an urgent need for more advanced HNC models that allow for reliable drug screening. The recent advances in tissue engineering, including the use of digital light processing-based three-dimensional (3D) bioprinters, have enabled the precise fabrication of complex constructs that mimic native tissue environments, exhibiting potential for use in disease modeling and drug discovery. Here, we fabricated a bioprintedin vitroHNC model using the gelatin methacryloyl bioink encapsulating FaDu cells to analyze the drug screening against HNC. The bioprinted tissues showed gradually increased cell viability as well as stable morphology and phenotype expression. The cytotoxicity analyses suggested increased resistance to anti-cancer drugs for cells in 3D-bioprinted tissues than those cultured in 2D, possibly due to the presence of native cell-cell interactions and diffusion barriers. The engineered exosomes with anti-cancer drugs also revealed significantly increased resistance in cells cultured in 3D than in 2D. This study provides a proof-of-concept bioprinted HNC model mimicking some of the native functional and structural components, having the potential for screening novel anti-HNC treatments and paving the way for personalized therapeutic strategies for HNC patients in the future.
To address the clinical limitations of autografts and allografts in bone defect repair, this study aimed to develop a novel composite graft by combining adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (SVF) with medical-grade collagen sponge, aiming to achieve structural support and functional vascularization simultaneously. A rat tibial defect model was established, and the SVF was combined with medical collagen sponge to form a composite for implantation.In vitroexperiments were conducted to detect the proliferation activity, osteogenic differentiation ability, and pro-angiogenic potential of SVF cells.In vivoexperiments were used to evaluate the bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and bone mineral density (BMD) in the bone defect area and observe the formation of CD31hi/Emcnhi vessels (H-type vessels). Immunofluorescence staining was performed to analyze the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF).In vitroSVF exhibited robust proliferation, osteogenic differentiation, and secreted factors that significantly enhanced endothelial cell migration and tube formation.In vivo, the SVF-collagen sponge composite significantly increased the bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and BMD at 9 weeks post-operation compared to controls. Importantly, at this 9 week time point, the SVF composite group demonstrated a greater abundance of type H vessels within the defect compared to both the scaffold-only and blank control groups. This was accompanied by sustained upregulation of VEGF and PDGF expression. The SVF-collagen sponge composite promotes bone regeneration in a rat defect model. The mechanism is associated with fostering a pro-angiogenic microenvironment, characterized by increased type H vessel formation and elevated expression of VEGF and PDGF, suggesting enhanced angiogenesis-osteogenesis coupling. This autologously-sourced composite shows promising translational potential due to its straightforward preparation and biocompatibility.
Effective management of acute and chronic wounds remains a major clinical challenge, driving the need for innovative therapeutic approaches. Plasma-rich in growth factors (PRGF), an autologous and bioactive fraction of platelet-rich plasma, has emerged as a promising agent for stimulating tissue repair and angiogenesis. In this study, poly (lactic acid) (PLA) microparticles loaded with PRGF were developed via a double emulsion (water-in-oil-in-water, W/O/W) solvent evaporation technique. Processing parameters, including synthesis and drying conditions, were optimized to yield a porous microparticle architecture conducive to controlled release. Morphological analysis using scanning electron microscopy confirmed the formation of uniformly spherical microparticles (PLMs) with an average diameter of 26.51 ± 7.86 µm and a mean pore size of 2.79 ± 0.55 µm.In-vitrorelease profiles demonstrated sustained PRGF release over a period of more than 17 d. Additionally, cell-based assays revealed that the PRGF-loaded PLMs effectively supported the proliferation, adhesion, and migration of human dermal fibroblasts. These results highlight the potential of PRGF-loaded PLA microparticles as a biocompatible and long-acting platform for advanced wound healing and regenerative medicine applications.
Infected bone defects pose a significant clinical challenge due to the need for prolonged antibiotic therapy and multiple bone grafting procedures, which often lead to antibiotic overuse and increased patient burden. In this study, we developed a multifunctional 3D-printed polycaprolactone (PCL)/β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) composite scaffold functionalized with a novel imidazolium-based cationic polymer (PIm+) encapsulated within a gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel interface. The resulting PCL/TCP+ scaffold exhibits optimized hydrophilicity and mechanical strength for bone regeneration. The early, sustained release of PIm+provides potent broad-spectrum bactericidal activity against bothStaphylococcus aureus(S. aureus) andEscherichia coli(E. coli) by efficiently disrupting bacterial membranes. Simultaneously, the TCP component facilitates long-term osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells through the sustained release of calcium and phosphate ions. In a clinically relevant rat infected calvarial defect model, the scaffold achieves near-complete bacterial clearance by day 7 and promotes robust bone bridging within 12 weeks. This integrated platform offers a promising, personalized strategy for infected bone repair by significantly reducing reliance on systemic antibiotics and providing a highly effective dual-functional microenvironment for infected bone regeneration.