Sex offender commitment laws use a mental health commitment model to lock up the "most dangerous" sex offenders after their prison sentences expire. In Kansas v. Hendricks, the United States Supreme Court rejected the major constitutional challenges to these laws. The Hendricks case clarifies important ambiguities about the use of civil commitment to enforce "police power" interests, as opposed to "parens patriae" interests. Hendricks also clarifies the role of "treatment" in justifying civil commitment. While there remain some important legal issues to be resolved, the future direction of sex offender commitment schemes will turn most significantly on policy decisions. The behavioral sciences can play an important role in shaping these decisions. The most significant questions concern whether expensive commitment programs are the most effective use of scarce treatment and supervision dollars. Additional research should be directed to improving dynamic predictors of recidivism, operationalizing "inability to control" standards, judging the "social meaning" of commitment laws, and assessing the potential treatment disincentives of these laws.
Despite tremendous growth in the field, there have been many challenges to law and the behavioral sciences. The most colorful expression is Abel's charge that “questions and answers have begun to sound a comfortable, but rather boring ‘clackity‐clack.’” On one hand, the achievements of the field cannot be ignored by those who want to think about law seriously. On the other hand, all approaches to the field are flawed and are likely to remain that way. Help in solving the problems of the field might come from a thorough interdisciplinary approach, calling on the contributions of all social sciences while recognizing the limitations of each; knowledge of a minimum amount of law and legal method, but with full awareness of how legal thought may distort definitions of problems; and knowledge of the questions posed by broader social theories in light of an empirical refining of their large explanations.
Previous article Next article Fractional Brownian Motions, Fractional Noises and ApplicationsBenoit B. Mandelbrot and John W. Van NessBenoit B. Mandelbrot and John W. Van Nesshttps://doi.org/10.1137/1010093PDFBibTexSections ToolsAdd to favoritesExport CitationTrack CitationsEmail SectionsAbout[1] I. Adelman, Long cycles—fact or artifact?, Amer. Economic Rev., 60 (1965), 444–463 Google Scholar[2] William Feller, The asymptotic distribution of the range of sums of independent random variables, Ann. Math. Statistics, 22 (1951), 427–432 MR0042626 0043.34201 CrossrefISIGoogle Scholar[3] I. M. Gel'fand and , N. Ya. Vilenkin, Generalized functions. Vol. 4, Academic Press [Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers], New York, 1964 [1977]xiv+384 MR0435834 Google Scholar[4] C. W. J. Granger, The typical spectral shape of an economic variable, Econometrica, 34 (1966), 150–161 CrossrefISIGoogle Scholar[5] G. A. Hunt, Random Fourier transforms, Trans. Amer. Math. 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I. DOES BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE HAVE A STRUCTURE? It is not surprising that there are many ways to read the materials that we have gathered in this volume. It is possible to forego generalizations entirely, to resist the temptation to look for broad patterns and big pictures. Legal scholars should find this material incredibly illuminating, even if they see each piece we have summarized as embodying no more than a stand-alone spark of novel insight, disconnected entirely from anything that could be labeled an approach or unified field. Many of the findings that behavioral scientists have reported bear directly on critical issues that confront those who must try to craft legal rules. In fact, as we have tried to note throughout the articles in this volume, many mainstream law courses would be greatly enriched if behavioral research more directly pervaded the material. For example, it was behavioral social scientists who discovered, or at least formalized, the existence of an effect:1 a tendency to place a higher value on a commodity or end state that one owns, or to which one has become accustomed, than one puts on the same commodity or end state that one must acquire anew. To the extent this endowment effect exists and lawmakers take it into account, of course, vast portions of the legal landscape look quite different. For instance, injunctions may be markedly stickier than expected by those who anticipate widespread post-injunction bargaining because the party favored by the injunction may come to value his court-awarded end state more than he would value that same substantive state if he purchased it in something akin to an auction.2 Thus, the party who wins the injunction may resist dollar bids from the burdened defendant, who is attempting to dissolve the injunction, that far exceed the dollar price he would offer to gain an entitlement to the state to which the injunction entitles him. Similarly, parties may not alter default terms in a wide variety of contractual settings because of the endowment effect, even when the ostensible transaction costs of altering the default term are low. To the extent this is true, the distinction between market facilitative default terms and paternalistic mandatory substantive rules that govern transactions may be far slimmer in practice than in theory.3 Behavioral scientists also observed the many ways in which disputants cared about voice and process, as well as the material goods they were or were not awarded in evaluating their level of satisfaction with a conflict resolution experience. This procedural justice literature unquestionably bears on many of the system-design issues that those who teach and write in civil procedure and alternative dispute resolution (ADR) must confront.4 For instance, they must confront the fact that even if a given procedure may generate fact findings and awards that precisely mimic the bottom line outcome of another procedure, that does not, by itself, make the two procedures interchangeable to the parties. It was behavioral scientists who identified the phenomenon of reactive devaluation, which is the tendency to disparage any end state that parties with whom another party is in conflict are willing to recommend or tolerate. Certainly, lawyers, as well as those who study lawyering, are aware that disputes are typically resolved consensually in the shadow of the law rather than through formal adjudication. They are also aware that lawyers frequently counsel parties attempting to establish viable long-term relationships. Accordingly, they must recognize the barriers such devaluation poses to the capacity to negotiate mutually beneficial settlements. If a party cannot be as satisfied as he would have been with a settlement or contractual offer, simply because it is offered, one should expect bargaining breakdowns to occur even when one is confident that a particular offered end state might have been perceived as quite acceptable to the party with which one is negotiating, outside the context of the adversarial negotiations. …
Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. H. van Lente, Promising technology. The dynamics of expectations in technological developments, PhD Thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, 1993. 2. M. Michael, Futures of the present: from performativity to prehension, in: N. Brown, B. Rappert & A. Webster (Eds) Contested Futures: A Sociology of Prospective Techno-Science (Aldershot, UK, Ashgate, 2000). 3. M. Sturken, D. Thomas & S. J. Ball-Rokeach (Eds), Technological Visions. The Hopes and Fears that Shape New Technologies (Philadelphia, PA, Temple University Press, 2004). 4. N. Brown, B. Rappert & A. Webster (Eds), Contested Futures: A Sociology of Prospective Techno-Science (Aldershot, UK, Ashgate, 2000). 5. W. Bijker & J. Law (Eds), Shaping Technology/Building Society (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1992); A. Pickering (Ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1992); B. Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society (Milton Keynes, UK, Open University Press, 1987); J. Law (Ed.), A Sociology of Monsters—Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London, Routledge, 1991). 6. H. van Lente & A. Rip, Expectations in technological developments: an example of prospective structures to be filled by agency, in: C. Disco & B. van der Meulen (Eds), Getting New Technologies Together. Studies in Making Sociotechnical Order (Berlin, De Gruyter, 1998). 7. J. Guice, Designing the future: the culture of new trends in science and technology, Research Policy, 28, 1999, pp. 81–98. 8. P. Martin, Great expectations: the construction of markets, products and user needs during the early development of gene therapy in the USA, in: R. Coombs, K. Green, A. Richards & V. Walsh (Eds), Technology and the Market: Demand, Users and Innovation (Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar, 2001); A. Hedgecoe & P. Martin, The drugs don't work: expectations and the shaping of pharmacogenetics, Social Studies of Science, 33, 2003, pp. 327–364. 9. C. Selin, Time matters: temporal harmony and dissonance in nanotechnology networks, Time & Society, 15, 2006, pp. 121–139. 10. H. Nowotny & U. Felt, After the Breakthrough—the Emergence of High-Temperature Superconductivity as a Research Field (Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 1997); M. Callon, Variety and irreversibility in networks of technique conception and adoption, in: D. Foray & C. Freeman (Eds), Technology and the Wealth of Nations—The Dynamics of Constructed Advantage (London, Pinter, 1993). 11. Van Lente, op. cit., Ref. 1; Van Lente & Rip, op. cit., Ref. 6; J. Deuten & A. Rip, Narrative infrastructure in product creation processes, Organization, 7, 2000, pp. 69–63; K. Konrad, Prägende Erwartungen—Szenarien als Schrittmacher der Technikentwicklung (Berlin, Edition Sigma, 2004). 12. N. Brown & M. Michael, A sociology of expectations: retrospecting prospects and prospecting retrospects, Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 15, 2003, pp. 3–18. 13. M. Dierkes, U. Hoffman & L. Maez, Leitbild und Technik: Zur Entstehung und Steuerung technischer Innovationen (Berlin, Edition Sigma, 1992); W. Rammert, Die kulturelle Orientierung der technischen Entwicklung. Eine technikgenetische Perspektive, in: D. Siefkes, P. Eulenhöfer, H. Stach & K. Städtler, (Eds), Sozialgeschichte der Informatik. Soziale Praktiken und Orientierungen (Wiesbaden, Deutscher Universitäts Verlag, 1998); H. D. Hellige, Technikleitbilder auf dem Prüfstand: Leitbild-Assessment aus Sicht der Informatik- und Computergeschichte (Berlin, Edition Sigma, 1996). 14. For example, M. Akrich, The de-scription of technical objects, in: Bijker & Law, op. cit., Ref 5, pp. 205–224; W. B. Carlson, Artifacts and frames of meaning: Thomas A. Edison, his managers, and the cultural construction of motion pictures, in shaping technology/building society, in: Bijker & Law, op. cit., Ref 5; J. Jelsma, Innovating for sustainability: involving users, politics and technology, Innovation, 16, 2003, pp. 103–116; N. Oudshoorn & T. Pinch, How Users Matter: The Co-construction of Users and Technology (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 2003). 15. B. De Laat, Scripts for the future: using innovation studies to design foresight tools, in: Brown et al., op. cit., Ref. 4; FORMAKIN, Final Report of the Formakin Project (Foresight as a Tool for the Management of Knowledge Flows and Innovation), York etc.: Science and Technology Studies Unit, University of York, 2001. An EU-TSERP project led by A.Webster, L. Sanz-Menéndez and B. van der Meulen. 16. C. Marvin, When Old Technologies were New (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990); M. Levin, When the Eiffel Tower was New: French Visions of Progress at the Centennial of the Revolution (Cambridge, MA, University of Massachusetts Press, 1989). 17. Ibid. 18. R. Kosellek, Futures Past—On the Semantics of Historical Time (Columbia, NY, Columbia University Press, 2004). 19. M. Weber, Politics as a vocation, in: H. Gerth & C. W. Mills (Eds), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958), pp. 77–128; G. H. Mead, The Philosophy of the Present (Chicago, IL, Chicago University Press, 1932); A. Schutz, On multiple realities, in: Collected Papers I, The Problem of Social Reality (The Hague, Alfred Schutz, 1962); A. Schutz, Tiresias, or our knowledge of future events, in: Collected Papers II, Studies in Social Theory (The Hague, Alfred Schutz, 1964); M. Emirbayer & A. Mische, What is agency?, American Journal of Sociology, 103(4), 1998, pp. 962–1023. 20. R. K. Merton, Socially expected durations: a case study of concept formation in sociology, in: W. Powell & R. Robbins (Eds), Conflict and Consensus: A Festschrift for L. Coser (New York, Free Press, 1984); B. Adam, Timescapes of Modernity: The Environment and Invisible Hazards (London, Routledge, 1998); B. Adam, Time and Social Theory (Cambridge, Polity, 1990); P. Virilio, The Information Bomb (London, Verso, 2000); P. Virilio, Speed and Politics (Columbia, NY, Columbia University Press, 1986). 21. F. Bartlett, Remembering. A study in Experiential and Social Psychology (Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 1995); P. Jedlowski, Memory and sociology: themes and issues, Time and Society, 10, 2001, pp. 29–44; M. Halbwacks, La Memoire Collective (Paris, Albin Michel, 1997). 22. J. M. Barbalet, Social emotions: confidence, trust and loyalty, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 16(9/10), 1996, pp. 75–96. 23. R. K. Merton, The self-fulfilling prophecy, The Antioch Review, 8, 1948, pp. 193–210. 24. N. Rosenberg, On technological expectations, The Economic Journal, 86, 1976, pp. 523–535; N. Rosenberg, On technological expectations, in: N. Rosenberg (Ed.), Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics (Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 104–119; C. Antonelli, The role of technological expectations in a mixed model of international diffusion of process innovations: the case of open-end spinning rotors, Research Policy, 18, 1989, pp. 273–288; F. Lissoni, Technological expectations and the diffusion of 'intermediate' technologies, CRIC (Manchester), Working Paper No. 8, August 1999; D. S. Boone, K. N. Lemon & R. Staelin, The impact of firm introductory strategies on consumers' perceptions of future product introductions and purchase decisions, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 18(2), 2001, pp. 96–109. 25. K. Froot, D. Scharfstein & J. Stein, Herd on the street: informational efficiencies in a market with short-term speculation, Journal of Finance, 47, 1992, pp. 1461–1484; S. Bikhchandani & S. Sharma, Herd behavior in financial markets, IMF Staff Papers, 47(3), 2001. 26. R. M. Grant, Contemporary Strategy Analysis, 2nd edn (Oxford, Blackwell, 1995). 27. G. Reger, Technology foresight in companies: from an indicator to a network and process perspective, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 13(4), 2001, pp. 533–553. 28. R. Koppl, Big Players and the Economic Theory of Expectations (London, Palgrave, 2002); J. Pixley, Finance organisations, decisions and emotions, British Journal of Sociology, 53(1), 2002, pp. 41–65. 29. De Laat, op. cit., Ref. 15; H.van Lente, From promises to requirement, in: Brown et al., op. cit., Ref. 4. 30. Konrad, op. cit., Ref. 11; Van Lente, op. cit., Ref. 29. 31. F. Geels & W. Smit, Lessons form failed technology futures: potholes in the road to the future', in Ref 4, pp. 881–882. 32. Ibid. 33. N. Luhmann, The modernity of science, New German Critique, 61, Winter 1994, pp. 9–16. 34. Kosellek, op. cit., Ref. 18. 35. J. Mokyr, Evolutionary biology, technological change and economic history, Bulletin of Economic Research, 43(2), 1991, pp. 127–149. 36. N. Brown, Hope against hype: accountability in biopasts, presents and futures, Science Studies, 16(2), 2003, pp. 3–21. 37. Deuten & Rip, op. cit., Ref. 11. 38. Konrad, op. cit., Ref. 11; Brown & Michael, op. cit., Ref. 12. 39. Van Lente, op. cit., Ref. 29. 40. W. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulps—Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1995), ch. 5. 41. Brown & Michael, op. cit., Ref. 12. 42. D. MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1990). 43. J. Ravetz, What is post-normal science?, Futures, 31, 1999, pp. 647–653. 44. Van Lente, op. cit., Ref. 1; Konrad, this issue. 45. Michael, op. cit., Ref. 2. 46. C. Thompson, The biotech mode of reproduction, Paper prepared for the School of American Research Advanced Seminar 'Animation and Cessation: Anthropological Perspectives on Changing Definitions of Life and Death in the Context of Biomedicine', Santa Fe, New Mexico, 2000. 47. P. Weingart, A. Engels & P. Pansegrau, Risks of communication: discourses on climate change in science, politics, and mass medi, Public Understanding of Science, 9(3), 2000, pp. 261–283. 48. H. Nowotny, P. Scott & M. Gibbons, Re-thinking Science—Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty (Cambridge, UK, Polity Press, 2001), p. 232. 49. Brown et al., op. cit., Ref. 4.
The Pure Theory of Law is a theory of positive law, not of a definite legal order, but of the law in general. It is a general theory of law. As such it is the most consistent version of that school of jurisprudence which is called legal positivism because it considers as “law” only positive law and refuses to recognize as law any other normative social order even if, in the usage of language, it is called “law”, as e.g. so-called “natural law”. Law is—according to the Pure Theory of Law—by its very nature a definite type of norm . As a “norm” the law is the specific meaning of an act of will directed at a definite human behavior. This meaning is: that men ought to behave in a certain way. Hence an essential presupposition of the Pure Theory of Law as a positivistic theory is the recognition of the fundamental difference between the “ought” and the “is”, between norms and assertions. Assertions describe a certain object; they are true or false; norms are not de scribing, but pres cribing; they are neither true nor false; they are valid or non-valid. Hence it is necessary to distinguish as clearly as possible between legal norms established by the legal authority, and assertions of the science of law about legal norms , the sentences by which this science describes its object.
Magnetic nanoparticles, which exhibit a variety of unique magnetic phenomena that are drastically different from those of their bulk counterparts, are garnering significant interest since these properties can be advantageous for utilization in a variety of applications ranging from storage media for magnetic memory devices to probes and vectors in the biomedical sciences. In this Account, we discuss the nanoscaling laws of magnetic nanoparticles including metals, metal ferrites, and metal alloys, while focusing on their size, shape, and composition effects. Their fundamental magnetic properties such as blocking temperature (Tb), spin life time (tau), coercivity (Hc), and susceptibility (chi) are strongly influenced by the nanoscaling laws, and as a result, these scaling relationships can be leveraged to control magnetism from the ferromagnetic to the superparamagnetic regimes. At the same time, they can be used in order to tune magnetic values including Hc, chi, and remanence (Mr). For example, life time of magnetic spin is directly related to the magnetic anisotropy energy (KuV) and also the size and volume of nanoparticles. The blocking temperature (Tb) changes from room temperature to 10 K as the size of cobalt nanoparticles is reduced from 13 to 2 nm. Similarly, H c is highly susceptible to the anisotropy of nanoparticles, while saturation magnetization is directly related to the canting effects of the disordered surface magnetic spins and follows a linear relationship upon plotting of ms (1/3) vs r(-1). Therefore, the nanoscaling laws of magnetic nanoparticles are important not only for understanding the behavior of existing materials but also for developing novel nanomaterials with superior properties. Since magnetic nanoparticles can be easily conjugated with biologically important constituents such as DNA, peptides, and antibodies, it is possible to construct versatile nano-bio hybrid particles, which simultaneously possess magnetic and biological functions for biomedical diagnostics and therapeutics. As demonstrated in this Account, nanoscaling laws for magnetic components are found to be critical to the design of optimized magnetic characteristics of hybrid nanoparticles and their enhanced applicability in the biomedical sciences including their utilizations as contrast enhancement agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ferromagnetic components for nano-bio hybrid structures, and translational vectors for magnetophoretic sensing of biological species. In particular, systematic modulation of saturation magnetization of nanoparticle probes is important to maximize MR contrast effects and magnetic separation of biological targets.
The first book to explore the hot science of networks and their impact on nature, business, medicine, and everyday life. }In the 1980's, James Gleick's Chaos introduced the world to complexity. Now, Albert-Lszl Barabsi's Linked reveals the next major scientific leap: the study of networks. We've long suspected that we live in a small world, where everything is connected to everything else. Indeed, networks are pervasive--from the human brain to the Internet to the economy to our group of friends. These linkages, it turns out, aren't random. All networks, to the great surprise of scientists, have an underlying order and follow simple laws. Understanding the structure and behavior of these networks will help us do some amazing things, from designing the optimal organization of a firm to stopping a disease outbreak before it spreads catastrophically.In Linked, Barabsi, a physicist whose work has revolutionized the study of networks, traces the development of this rapidly unfolding science and introduces us to the scientists carrying out this pioneering work. These new cartographers are mapping networks in a wide range of scientific disciplines, proving that social networks, corporations, and cells are more similar than they are different, and providing important insights into the interconnected world around us. This knowledge, says Barabsi, can shed light on the robustness of the Internet, the spread of fads and viruses, even the future of democracy. Engaging and authoritative, Linked provides an exciting preview of the next century in science, guaranteed to be transformed by these amazing discoveries.From Linked:This book has a simple message: think networks. It is about how networks emerge, what they look like, and how they evolve. It aims to develop a web-based view of nature, society, and technology, providing a unified framework to better understand issues ranging from the vulnerability of the Internet to the spread of diseases. Networks are present everywhere. All we need is an eye for them...We will see the challenges doctors face when they attempt to cure a disease by focusing on a single molecule or gene, disregarding the complex interconnected nature of the living matter. We will see that hackers are not alone in attacking networks: we all play Goliath, firing shots at a fragile ecological network that, without further support, could soon replicate our worst nightmares by turning us into an isolated group of species...Linked is meant to be an eye-opening trip that challenges you to walk across disciplines by stepping out of the box of reductionism. It is an invitation to explore link by link the next scientific revolution: the science of networks. }
The aim in this article is to determine the method of normative and empirical legal research with the typical characteristics of the methods of researching Law. The approach used qualitative methods through the study of literature. Based on the research findings and discussion, it can be concluded, first, science law (jurisprudence) and all sub-study with him in a large family study of the law, no matter how controversial as as a discipline independent and peculiar (sui generis), part from the humanities and social sciences, as well as natural science (exact) and social sciences which has had an undeniable place in the branches of science. Science of law must be recognized as having the research methods typical and unique, in terms of interest / usefulness to do a research in the field of law, both theoretical and practical, or of how to look at the science of law as a discipline prescriptive and applied, as well as from the point of view of human behavior relating to the existence of the law. Secondly, the penstudi law should realize the importance of legal research which is the authority, even advised not to leave, ie normative legal research / doctrinal, both from the point of view of the approach commom law system (statutes approach, case approach, historical approach, comparative approach and conceptual approach) as well as from the standpoint of research form the principles of law, the synchronization of legislation and others. which has been used as a handle by penstudi law in Indonesia and tend intended for academic interest. Third, the differences in conceptions, notions in the study of legal research in various law schools and high schools of law, especially for academic interest (thesis and dissertation), the main question is whether or not a uniformity is realized, or let it all by referring to the belief respective legal research on how it thinks best. Keywords: Research Methods law, Legal Normative and Empirical
In this book, one of our country's most distinguished scholar-judges shares with us his vision of the law. For the past two thousand years, the philosophy of law has been dominated by two rival doctrines. One contends that law is more than politics and yields, in the hands of skillful judges, correct answers to even the most difficult legal questions; the other contends that law is politics through and through and that judges wield essentially arbitrary powers. Rejecting these doctrines as too metaphysical in the first instance and too nihilistic in the second, Richard Posner argues for a pragmatic jurisprudence, one that eschews formalism in favor of the factual and the empirical. Laws, he argues, are not abstract, sacred entities, but socially determined goads for shaping behavior to conform with society's values. Examining how judges go about making difficult decisions, Posner argues that they cannot rely on either logic or science, but must fall back on a grab bag of informal methods of reasoning that owe less than one might think to legal training and experience. Indeed, he reminds us, the greatest figures in American law have transcended the traditional conceptions of the lawyer's craft. Robert Jackson did not attend law school and Benjamin Cardozo left before getting a degree. Holmes was neither the most successful of lawyers nor the most lawyerly of judges. Citing these examples, Posner makes a plea for a law that frees itself from excessive insularity and takes all knowledge, practical and theoretical, as grist for its mill. The pragmatism that Posner espouses implies looking at problems concretely, experimentally, without illusions, with an emphasis on keepingdiverse paths of inquiry open, and, above all, with the insistence that social thought and action be evaluated as instruments to desired human goals rather than as ends in themselves. In making his arguments, he discusses notable figures in jurisprudence from Antigonc to Ronald Dworkin as well as recent movements ranging from law and economics to civic republicanism, and feminism to libertarianism. All are subjected to Posner's stringent analysis in a fresh and candid examination of some of the deepest problems presented by the enterprise of law.
This review essay examines Mark Findlay's Governing the Metaverse: Law, Order and Freedom in Digital Space. Findlay offers an ambitious and timely account of the metaverse as a social and imaginative space that should be governed for freedom, personhood, community, and resistance to enclosure. The essay argues, however, that the book's two central categories, "the metaverse" and "new law," remain insufficiently theorised. The book relies on a realspace/virtual distinction that its own analysis repeatedly destabilises. Once digital environments are understood as dependent on physical infrastructures, platform architectures, AI systems, data pipelines, and external legal institutions, and as capable of generating real-world harms for individuals and society, the governance problem is no longer how to devise a separate law for a separate virtual realm. It is how to govern a hybrid socio-technical order in which law, code, platforms, and public oversight recursively interact. The essay further argues that Findlay's account of "new law" does not adequately theorise how normative authority operates across a recursively layered governance architecture in which code, platform rules, and le
The prospect of artificial superintelligence -- AI agents that can generally outperform humans in cognitive tasks and economically valuable activities -- will transform the legal order as we know it. Operating autonomously or under only limited human oversight, AI agents will assume a growing range of roles in the legal system. First, in making consequential decisions and taking real-world actions, AI agents will become de facto subjects of law. Second, to cooperate and compete with other actors (human or non-human), AI agents will harness conventional legal instruments and institutions such as contracts and courts, becoming consumers of law. Third, to the extent AI agents perform the functions of writing, interpreting, and administering law, they will become producers and enforcers of law. These developments, whenever they ultimately occur, will call into question fundamental assumptions in legal theory and doctrine, especially to the extent they ground the legitimacy of legal institutions in their human origins. Attempts to align AI agents with extant human law will also face new challenges as AI agents will not only be a primary target of law, but a core user of law and contribu
Behavioral science, which has only recently become a subject of discussion in legal journals, has had its greatest impact on the newer social sciences, especially sociology.This success may be attributed either to the ability of the behavioral approach to answer the questions posed in sociology or to the willingness of sociologists to restrict their questions to those that can be answered by behavioral research; in either case, it is a fact that sociology today has almost no existence except as a behavioral science, It is wholly committed to the research methods and to the basic premise of behavioral science.'.This new approach has had a relatively lesser impact on political science, the discipline closest to law.Despite its success in sociology and social psychology, and despite the commitment to it on the part of many well known political scientists, it has not yet succeeded in capturing the profession, or, at least, in subduing all opposition within the profession.This might be attributed to the fact that political science, like law, is old, the carrier of traditions that date back to classical antiquity, and that traditional disciplines tend to resist innovation, sometimes merely because of an attachment to what is old and therefore familiar.Those who have publicly opposed the new behavioral political science have not, of course, knowingly chosen this non-rational ground on which to place their opposition; they have given reasons, but perhaps not in every case good reasons.They in turn have been ridiculed, but perhaps not in every case justifiably.At least one of them, Bernard Crick, the
Introductory physics and astronomy courses commonly use Wien's displacement law to explain the colors of blackbodies, including the Sun and other stars, in terms of their temperatures. We argue here that focusing on the peak of the blackbody spectrum is misleading for three reasons. First, the Planck curve is too broad for an individual spectral color to stand out. Second, the location of the peak of the Planck curve depends on the choice of the independent variable in the plot. And third, Wien's displacement law is seldom used in actual practice to find a temperature and direct fitting to the Planck function is preferable. We discuss these flaws and argue that, at the introductory level, presentation of blackbody radiation in terms of photon statistics would be more effective pedagogically. The average energy of the emitted photons would then be presented in place of Wien's displacement law, and discussion of the Stefan-Boltzmann law would include the total number of photons emitted per second. Finally, we suggest that the Planck spectrum is most appropriately plotted as a "spectral energy density per fractional bandwidth distribution," using a logarithmic scale for the wavelength
This paper investigates the stability of the power-law steady state often observed in marine ecosystems. Three dynamical systems are considered, describing the abundance of organisms as a function of body mass and time: a "jump-growth" equation, a first order approximation which is the widely used McKendrick-von Foerster equation, and a second order approximation which is the McKendrick-von Foerster equation with a diffusion term. All of these yield a power-law steady state. We derive, for the first time, the eigenvalue spectrum for the linearised evolution operator, under certain constraints on the parameters. This provides new knowledge of the stability properties of the power-law steady state. It is shown analytically that the steady state of the McKendrick-von Foerster equation without the diffusion term is always unstable. Furthermore, numerical plots show that eigenvalue spectra of the McKendrick-von Foerster equation with diffusion give a good approximation to those of the jump-growth equation. The steady state is more likely to be stable with a low preferred predator : prey mass ratio, a large diet breadth and a high feeding efficiency.
Physical interactions in quantum many-body systems are typically local: Individual constituents interact mainly with their few nearest neighbors. This locality of interactions is inherited by a decay of correlation functions, but also reflected by scaling laws of a quite profound quantity: the entanglement entropy of ground states. This entropy of the reduced state of a subregion often merely grows like the boundary area of the subregion, and not like its volume, in sharp contrast with an expected extensive behavior. Such ``area laws'' for the entanglement entropy and related quantities have received considerable attention in recent years. They emerge in several seemingly unrelated fields, in the context of black hole physics, quantum information science, and quantum many-body physics where they have important implications on the numerical simulation of lattice models. In this Colloquium the current status of area laws in these fields is reviewed. Center stage is taken by rigorous results on lattice models in one and higher spatial dimensions. The differences and similarities between bosonic and fermionic models are stressed, area laws are related to the velocity of information propagation in quantum lattice models, and disordered systems, nonequilibrium situations, and topological entanglement entropies are discussed. These questions are considered in classical and quantum systems, in their ground and thermal states, for a variety of correlation measures. A significant proportion is devoted to the clear and quantitative connection between the entanglement content of states and the possibility of their efficient numerical simulation. Matrix-product states, higher-dimensional analogs, and variational sets from entanglement renormalization are also discussed and the paper is concluded by highlighting the implications of area laws on quantifying the effective degrees of freedom that need to be considered in simulations of quantum states.
In modern markets, many companies offer so-called 'free' services and monetize consumer data they collect through those services. This paper argues that consumer law and data protection law can usefully complement each other. Data protection law can also inform the interpretation of consumer law. Using consumer rights, consumers should be able to challenge excessive collection of their personal data. Consumer organizations have used consumer law to tackle data protection infringements. The interplay of data protection law and consumer protection law provides exciting opportunities for a more integrated vision on 'data consumer law'.
Benford's law states that the occurrence of significant digits in many data sets is not uniform but tends to follow a logarithmic distribution such that the smaller digits appear as first significant digits more frequently than the larger ones. We investigate here numerical data on the country-wise adherent distribution of seven major world religions i.e. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism and Baha'ism to see if the proportion of the leading digits occurring in the distribution conforms to Benford's law. We find that the adherent data of all the religions, except Christianity, excellently does conform to Benford's law. Furthermore, unlike the adherent data on Christianity, the significant digit distribution of the three major Christian denominations i.e. Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy obeys the law. Thus in spite of their complexity general laws can be established for the evolution of the religious groups.
Symbolic regression (SR) has emerged as a powerful method for uncovering interpretable mathematical relationships from data, offering a novel route to both scientific discovery and efficient empirical modelling. This article introduces the Special Issue on Symbolic Regression for the Physical Sciences, motivated by the Royal Society discussion meeting held in April 2025. The contributions collected here span applications from automated equation discovery and emergent-phenomena modelling to the construction of compact emulators for computationally expensive simulations. The introductory review outlines the conceptual foundations of SR, contrasts it with conventional regression approaches, and surveys its main use cases in the physical sciences, including the derivation of effective theories, empirical functional forms and surrogate models. We summarise methodological considerations such as search-space design, operator selection, complexity control, feature selection, and integration with modern AI approaches. We also highlight ongoing challenges, including scalability, robustness to noise, overfitting and computational complexity. Finally we emphasise emerging directions, particula
Claims of exceptions to the second law of thermodynamics are generally met with extreme skepticism that is quite reasonable given the great confidence placed in the second law. But what specifically is the basis for that confidence? The perspective from which we approach experimental or theoretical results that call into question the absolute status of the second law depends greatly on our understanding of why it must be true. For example, a belief that there are solid theoretical arguments demonstrating that the second law must be true leads to a very different perspective than a belief that the law is simply a generalization of empirical observations. This paper will briefly survey and examine some of the basic arguments on which our confidence in the second law might be based, to help provide a well-informed perspective for evaluating the various claims presented at this conference.