搜索结果：Acta of bioengineering and biomechanics

Purpose: This study examined the biomechanical effects of running-induced fatigue on the kinematic and kinetic changes of the lower limb during a countermovement jump (CMJ) via analyzing variations in joint biomechanics during landing. Methods: A running-induced fatigue protocol was employed to explore changes in joint angle, moments, stiffness and loading rate during the CMJ landing pre and post-fatigue. Paired-sample t-tests assessed changes in discrete parameters of joint stiffness, loading rates, and time-varying parameters were compared with one-dimensional statistical parametric mapping. Results: Fatigue significantly reduced the range of motion (ROM) during landing, with significant differences in angles, specifically the dorsi-plantar flexion of right ankle, flexion-extension of left hip, rotation of left knee, and adduction-abduction of right knee (P < 0.001). The first loading rate at touchdown decreased by 10%, and the time intervals between the first and second peak and the second and third peak reduced by 40 and 80%, respectively. Joint loading increased and the sagittal joint stiffness of left hip, right knee, and right ankle exhibited significant differences post-fatigue (P < 0.001). Knee joint reduced the flexion angle (P < 0.001) and the load of knee joint (P < 0.001) during post-fatigue, with the role compensated by hip and ankle joints to achieve balance in the lower limb kinetic chain. Conclusions: These findings provide pilot evidence that running fatigue may lead to changes in lower limb joint loadings and provide a scientific foundation for fatigue prediction and injury assessment.

Purpose: Pronated or supinated hand positions during strength training on the bar can affect the muscle biomechanics of the entire upper limb and shoulder girdle Understanding these relationships can help improve sports training strategies and the process of physical therapy after injuries. The aim of this study was to optimize the hand position on the bar to identify the best biomechanical movement pattern and strengthen selected muscles during strength training. Methods: A total of 31 students, 12 male and 19 female, aged 18-26 years, participated in the study. Each participant performed 4 series of bar pulls: 2 times in the pronated grip position and 2 times in the supinated grip position, at two different angles of arm opening. During the intervention, sEMG examination of the biceps brachii and latissimus dorsi was performed. Results: Significant differences were shown during strength training for the biceps brachii in the hand grip position ( p < 0.001). All the observed showed an average increase in bioelectric activity of the tested muscles in the hand grip, regardless of the angle of the arm position. Conclusions: Strength exercises of the biceps brachii in the hand grip on the bar may be analternative to milder strength training. On the other hand, training exercises in the grip require greater involvement of the biceps brachii and the latissimus dorsi. Surface electromyography precisely shows differences in the bioactivity of the upper limb muscles in the hand grip and undergrip during strength training, which confirms its diagnostic usefulness.

Purpose: This study investigated the effect of anteromedial (AM) and central anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstructions on the patellofemoral joint (PFJ) contact mechanics during walking and running. Methods: Six knee models were established under a musculoskeletal multibody dynamic framework. The ACL attachment points and muscle volume of the quadriceps femoris and hamstrings were modified to simulate ACL reconstructions and post-operative muscle atrophy. Walking and running simulations were performed to quantify ACL graft force and PFJ contact force. A single stance phase of the motion cycle was divided into eleven time points (periods 0.0-1.0). The computational results were statistically tested at each time point. Results: The results showed that central ACL reconstruction reduced graft force at contralateral toe-off and toe-off phases under walking conditions and the entire cycle under running conditions, with maximal reductions were 10.96 &#xb1; 7.42% and 29.00 &#xb1; 10.41%, respectively. Compared to AM reconstruction, central reconstruction increased the mean PFJ contact force by up to 2.12 &#xb1; 1.17% of body weight during periods 0.4-0.9 of the walking cycle and exhibited a complex pattern during the running cycle. Conclusions: Central ACL reconstruction provided a significantly higher PFJ load compared to AM reconstruction during walking after surgery. No consistent conclusions were reached between the two surgical protocols on PFJ contact force during running. These findings provide clinicians with a better understanding of the PFJ mechanics after ACL reconstruction.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of foot strike patterns and running-induced fatigue on the biomechanical responses of the knee and ankle joints in amateur marathon runners by analyzing the combined effects of these two factors on lower limb joint kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activation characteristics under different conditions. Methods: A total of 26 participants were recruited.13 male amateur marathon runners with habitual non-rearfoot strike and 13 with rearfoot strike patterns underwent mild, moderate and severe running-induced fatigue interventions. Kinematic, ground reaction force and electromyographic data were collected. A two-way analysis of variance was performed in SPSS for statistical analysis. Results: Fatigue level significantly affected knee joint range of motion ( p = 0.023), peak joint moment ( p = 0.003), and joint stiffness ( p = 0.040). The non-rearfoot strike runners exhibited significantly greater ankle joint range of motion ( p < 0.001) and lower peak joint moments ( p < 0.001) compared to rearfoot strike runners. A significant interaction effect between fatigue and foot strike pattern was observed on the Root Mean Square amplitude of the medial gastrocnemius ( p = 0.017) and biceps femoris ( p = 0.021). Conclusions: A significant interaction effect between fatigue and foot strike patterns was observed in Root Mean Square. Given the impact of localized muscle fatigue on joint kinematics and kinetics, the nonrearfoot strike runners may demonstrate intense fatigue-related biomechanical alterations to the knee and ankle joints during the latter stages of long-distance running. These results suggest that understanding foot strike biomechanics under fatigue may inform training and injury prevention.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate a novel data mining approach for early and effective diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). Methods: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) data contains two classes (healthy and diabetic), 15 features and 3525 instances. In the first stage, the widely used and effective KNN and regression methods were employed for the filling of missing data. Then, the data source transformed into grayscale images as primary images and multiplexed images. Finally, both original data and transformed data are classified with KNN, SVM and CNN using k-fold cross validation technique. Performance metrics were compared to extract the best suitable system. Results: The original GDM source and the missing values replacement of GDM are classified with KNN and SVM methods. Also, primary images of this dataset and multiplexed images are classified with CNN 50%-50% and 70%-30% train-test respectively. The results of classification performance demonstrated that reaching up to 97.91% with CNN, recall of 97.61%, specificity of 97.61%, precision of 97.97% and F1-score of 97.79%. This result outperformed all previous studies conducted on the same dataset in the literature. Conclusions: This work is demonstrated a new approach that the best results of classification accuracy when compared with previous studies related to proposed methods to identify GDM disease. It can be clearly stated that applying a data mining method to impute missing values, followed by converting the dataset into images based on certain criteria and classifying with CNN, is the most effective approach for predicting GDM.

Purpose: In this paper, the results of biomechanical studies conducted on an animal model are presented. The research shows the importance of detailed consideration of anatomical and functional differences relative to the human skeleton. The aim of this study was to assess the mechanical properties of cortical bone tissue, determine density values and compare different methods for measuring cancellous bone tissue density in terms of their practical application and limitations. Methods: In the presented research, the Young's modulus of canine cortical bone was determined using microindentation. The density of cancellous bone tissue in the proximal epiphysis of the canine femur was determined using several selected research methods. Results: A comparison of Young's modulus values for different bone areas showed that the highest values of the bone tissue's Young's modulus were obtained within the middle part of the bone shaft. It was observed that the distribution of density values is similar across the methods used, however, the range of the determined values differs slightly. Conclusions: The determination of values and assessment of the mechanical properties of cortical bone tissue, along with the comparison of different methods for measuring cancellous bone tissue density, allows for more accurate prediction of fracture risk and more effective planning of surgical interventions.

Purpose: The determinants of the sports results of young and adult swimmers differ, especially in sprint races (50-100 m). Their identification can be used to assess the athlete's potential and to set appropriate requirements. The aim was to distinguish energy-anthropometric profiles (clusters) among young athletes and to characterize their kinematic indices in freestyle sprint races (50-100 m). Kinematic variables from both distances were compared in each cluster. Methods: Anthropometric indices and mechanical power of the upper limbs (arm-cranking) were determined in 43 subjects (boys, aged 12-13 years), which were used for cluster analysis. For the 50- and 100-m races the following were determined: velocity (v), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL) and stroke index (SI). Comparative analysis was performed between clusters and between distances. Results: The following clusters were distinguished: Large (LSP), Medium (MSP) and Small Size and Power (SSP), which differed due to anthropometric and power indices. Intergroup differences (LSP, MSP and SSP, respectively) were revealed in v 50 (1.65, 1.55, 1.49 m/s), v 100 (1.52, 1.41, 1.34 m/s), SL100 (1.92, 1.77, 1.72 m), SI50 (2.92, 2.65, 2.54 m/s2), SI100 (2.91, 2.51, 2.31 m/s2). In all clusters differences were revealed between v 50 and v 100 and SR50 and SR100. Differences in SL50 and SL100 were noticed in LSP and MSP, while in SI50 and SI100 in MSP and SSP. Conclusions: The evaluation of the technique should consider the energy-anthropometric profile of the athlete. The swimming technique need to be modified depending on the distance - also in races perceived as sprints.

Purpose: Fluid-structure interaction (FSI) techniques have become widely accepted numerical tools for analysing transient flows through compliant channels and tubes. However, FSI remains computationally demanding and requires assumptions about certain parameters that are often difficult to determine, particularly in biomedical applications. This study aimed to demonstrate the importance of key decisions required to conduct FSI simulations. Methods: Appropriate material properties were selected and parameters that define the magnitude of external reactions and cushioning effects (which are usually unknown but can be discovered through reverse engineering were set). Using a simplified model of an elastic straight tube, which represents a high-flow artery, reduced the influence of shape and associated mesh imperfections on the results. Results: Wall deformation, von Mises stress, wall shear stress and the pressure drop along the tube were analysed. Verification with various mesh densities for the compliant wall demonstrated that mesh fidelity significantly affects von Mises stress and computation time on a standard PC but has a negligible effect on wall deformation, wall shear stress and pressure drop. Conclusions: Varying wall stiffness and foundation stiffness affected the resulting compliance and all monitored parameters. Additionally, applying different mass and stiffness coefficients to define Rayleigh damping identified a safe range of applicability of this type of damping, however, experimental validation is necessary to determine appropriate values for specific applications and avoid overdamping. Finally, the results were discussed in the context of other FSI research and relevant in vivo and in vitro blood flow studies.

Purpose: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterised by multifocal and damage disseminated in time to the central nervous system. This causes various clinical symptoms, including spastically increased muscle tone and balance disorders, which already occur in the early stages of the disease, increasing the frequency of falls, which negatively affects the mobility and independence of patients. Whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) is used in the rehabilitation of MS patients, however, there are no reports on the effect of WBC without subsequent kinesiotherapy on body balance in patients with MS. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of a series of 10 and 20 WBC without kinesiotherapy on the degree of disability assessed by the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), muscle spasticity evaluated using the Modified Ashworth scale (MAS) and body balance in patients with multiple sclerosis. Methods: The study was completed by 51 patients, aged 23 to 65 years, with a disability grade of 3.5-6.5 on the EDSS scale and spasticity 0-3.0 assessed by the MAS. Patients were randomly assigned to the control group (n = 18) or the experimental group participating in 20 WBC sessions (n = 33). Balance assessment consisted of performing two, 30-second static tests on stabilometric platform, the first test with eyes open and the second one with eyes closed. During these tests, the centre of foot pressure displacement was monitored and analysed in real time. Results: A series of 20 daily WBC resulted in an improvement in the functional status of patients with multiple sclerosis in the form of a significant reduction in EDSS values and spasticity, both on the side with greater and less spasticity. Under the effect of whole-body cryotherapy treatments, there was slight improvement in the stability in patients with multiple sclerosis. Conclusions: Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that WBC, without subsequent targeted kinesiotherapy, are not sufficient to obtain clear and measurable benefits in the rehabilitation of patients with multiple sclerosis.

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the immediate effects of cognitive tasks on static and dynamic balance in gymnasts, handball players and video gamers under the age of 12 years, using dual-task paradigm. Methods: A sample of 50 children under the age of 12 years was divided into three groups (i.e., gymnasts, handball players and video gamers). They participated in a dual-task experiment involving mental rotation tasks with static and dynamic balance assessments. Participants performed mental rotation tasks (i.e., object- based 3D cube and human body conditions) while simultaneously maintaining static and/or dynamic balance on a stabilometric platform. Center of pressure sway, acceleration and displacement were measured. Performance in both cognitive and balance tasks was recorded and analyzed. Results: The results revealed significant immediate beneficial effects of cognitive tasks on dynamic balance. Specifically, dual tasks led to improved performance in mental rotation tasks and enhanced postural control, as evidenced by a reduced center of pressure sway ( p < 0.01). Athletes demonstrated greater improvements than non-athletes, highlighting the effectiveness of cognitive engagement in improving postural control. Conclusion: These results suggest that participation in sports during childhood can significantly enhance neuromuscular control and balance, which are critical for maintaining stability. The findings highlight the importance of integrating cognitive challenges into physical training. This approach enhances both cognitive and motor performance in young athletes.

Purpose: The purpose of the current study was to compare the protective performance of helmet designs with different sizes and cushion materials for skull and brain injuries in children. Methods: A 6-year-old child head finite element (FE) model with high biofidelity was used to conduct impact simulations under the protection of helmets with different sizes (small, medium and large) and cushion materials (EPS-expanded polystyrene, PU-polyurethane and airbag) according to the testing conditions specified by the standard. Then, the protective performance of different helmet designs was evaluated by assessing skull and brain injury risk calculated based on the kinematic and biomechanical response of the child head model. Results: The skull fracture risk of children under the protection of airbag helmets is lower than that of EPS and PU helmets by more than 50%. Large-sized helmets, with thicker padding, show better protective capability for skull injury compared to small-sized helmets. The risk of brain injury under airbag helmet protection is significantly lower than EPS and PU helmet under 4.8 m/s sharp anvil impact test condition, and small sized helmet could generally reduce brain injury risk under the 6.2 m/s flat anvil impact test condition. However, no obvious effect has been found of helmet size and material to brain injury risk in the impact scenarios at 6.2 m/s. Conclusions: The size and cushion material of the helmet have a significant influence on its skull injury protection performance, but their effect pattern on brain injury protection capability is not obvious. The use of airbag helmets with larger buffering stroke can effectively reduce both the risk of skull and brain injuries under relatively low impact loads.

Purpose: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to treat pain, but they have side effects, including the inhibition of bone healing. Diclofenac (DF), a member of the NSAID group, affects bone health adversely. One potential approach to protect bones from the effects of NSAIDs involves the administration of short nucleic acids, such as microRNAs (miRNAs). This study aimed to determine whether two specific miRNAs, miR-15b and miR-365, could mitigate the effects of DF on bone. Methods: We used the C57BL/6J mouse strain and the MC3T3-E1 preosteoblast cell line derived from this mouse strain. Female C57BL/6J mice were treated with DF and miR-15b or miR-365 mimics. After euthanising the mice, we analysed their femurs using micro-computed tomography (&#x3bc;CT) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). In addition, we performed experiments in cultured MC3T3-E1 cells, which were transfected with either miR- 15b or miR-365. We assessed the relative mRNA levels of osteoblast differentiation markers using real-time PCR. Results: Our findings indicated that miR-15b and miR-365 were effective in reversing the detrimental effects of DF on bone mineral density. DF decreased the bone's storage modulus (E'), while miR-15b and miR-365 ameliorated this effect. In the preosteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells, DF did not significantly regulate marker genes; however, the administration of miR-15b and miR-365 reduced the gene expression of Runx2, Alp, and Satb2. Conclusions: In summary, the impact of DF on the structural and mechanical properties of bone was not mediated by gene regulation in osteoblasts. However, osteoblasts were responsive to the administration of miR-15b and miR-365.

Purpose: The present study aimed to assess physical performance and its relationship with age and BMI in young male football players with Down syndrome and mild intellectual disability compared to their untrained peers. Methods: The study included 60 boys with Down syndrome and mild intellectual disability aged 11-13 years, assigned to the study group (trained football at the Futbol+ Sports Academy) and the control group (untrained peers). Research tools was the Eurofit Special test. The data were analyzed based on the using chi-squared test, Student's t-test for independent variables, or Mann-Whitney U-test, Pearson's linear correlation or Spearman's rank correlation. Results: Young male football players with Down syndrome scored better for Standing Long Jump ( p < 0.001), Bent Knee Sit-ups in 30 seconds ( p < 0.001), 2 kg Medicine Ball Forward Push with one hand ( p < 0.001), and Walking on a Gymnastic Bench in the Upright Position ( p = 0.001), while for 25 m Run from a High Start, boys from the control group achieved better results ( p < 0.001). There were no statistically significant relationships of Eurofit Special test results with age and BMI. Conclusions: Football training improves physical performance of boys with Down syndrome and mild intellectual disability, especially dynamic balance, muscle strength of the lower limbs, upper limbs and abdomen. It can therefore be assumed that these characteristics are the most important indicators of the effectiveness of football training in these individuals. Age and BMI should not be considered as determinants of motor fitness in children and adolescents with Down syndrome and associated mental retardation.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a combined core stabilization exercise program on the static contractile properties of the erector spinae and the isokinetic muscle function of trunk flexion and extension in office workers aged twenty years and older. Methods: All participants performed a combined core stabilization exercise program, for seven weeks. And all participants were assessed using tensiomyography to evaluate the contractile properties of the erector spinae, and also assessed for isokinetic trunk strength. Results: As a result of tensiomyography, we found that significant main effect of sex on contraction time ( p &#x2264; 0.001), and maximum radial displacement, velocity of contraction demonstrated significant main effects for sex and time ( p &#x2264; 0.001). Regarding isokinetic trunk muscle function, significant main effects of sex and time were observed for trunk flexion, extension, and the flexion/extension ratio at 60&#xb0;/sec ( p &#x2264; 0.001) and 90&#xb0;/sec ( p &#x2264; 0.001). In addition, trunk extension at 90&#xb0;/sec demonstrated a significant sexby-time interaction ( p = 0.010). Conclusions: These findings suggest that overall, the 7-week combined core stabilization exercise program was effective in enhancing the static contractile properties of the erector spinae and improving trunk isokinetic muscle function.

Basketball requires high lower limb performance. Assessing jump biomechanics is vital for enhancing performance and injury prevention. Marker-based (MB) systems are common but limited. In recent years, Markerless (ML) motion capture systems have gradually become emerging tools in sports biomechanics research due to their characteristic of not requiring physical marker points. However, their specific application and verification in basketball events are still relatively limited. Purpose: In this study, lower limb kinematics and kinetics estimated by MB and ML motion capture systems during jumps were compared. Methods: Twelve subjects performed the standing vertical jump (SVJ), standing long jump (SLJ) and running vertical jump (RVJ) tests. Data was collected using 10 infrared cameras, 6 high-resolution cameras and two force platforms via Vicon Nexus software. Markerless motion capture calculated sagittal plane angles, torque and power of the Hip, Knee and Ankle joints via Theia3D software, with these parameters also collected by the marker-based Vicon system. Both systems' '64ata were then processed in Visual3D. We analyzed the correlation coefficient (r), root mean square difference (RMSD), and maximum/minimum errors, as well as using statistical parametric mapping (SPM) to compare temporal patterns between groups and determine specific moments where significant differences occurred. Results: SLJ capture was slightly inferior in both systems. SPM analysis of the sagittal plane showed significant differences only at the hip joint. Joint angle RMSD was < 8.2&#xb0;, torque RMSD < 0.41 N&#xb7;M/kg, and power RMSD < 1.76 W/kg. Conclusions: The ML system accurately captures knee and ankle joints in the sagittal plane but shows significant differences in hip measurement and certain movements, requiring further validation.

Purpose: This study investigated the effects of stroboscopic disruption (SD) on postural control strategies in elderly individuals by comparing center of pressure (CoP) variables between young and elderly individuals during bipedal standing tasks, with and without SD. Methods: Thirty-five participants, 15 young and 20 elderly, completed 60-second bipedal quiet standing trials on a force plate. Excluding the initial and final 10-second preparation and recovery phases, the central 40 seconds of CoP trajectory were quantified using timedomain and frequency-domain parameters across the medial-lateral (ML), anterior-posterior (AP), and resultant spatial (RS) directions. Rambling (RM) and trembling (TR) components were also extracted. Statistical analysis was performed using a linear mixed-effect regression (LMER). Results: SD significantly affected CoP control, with the elderly exhibiting greater changes in most variables than the younger group. During the transition from transparent to SD conditions, time-domain parameters showed a significant increase in mean movement distance and root mean square in the RS direction for both traditional and RM components among the elderly. Additionally, the 95% confidence circle and ellipse areas were larger in the elderly group. In the frequency-domain parameters, such as 80% power frequency, frequency dispersion, and concentrated frequency decreased in the AP and RS directions for both traditional and RM components in the elderly group. Conclusions: The reduction in visual inputs caused by SD leads to decreased flexibility and automaticity in the postural control of elderly individuals, making it more difficult for them to control CoP sway and adapt to changes in visual input compared to younger individuals.

Purpose: This study aimed to comparatively analyze the lower-limb biomechanical differences between two populations with ankle dorsiflexion limitation during the stance phase of gait, thereby providing a scientific basis for clinical rehabilitation and athletic training. Methods: 12 males with congenital ankle dorsiflexion limitation and 12 males with acquired ankle dorsiflexion limitation, along with 12 healthy male controls were recruited into the study. Group differences in lower-limb kinematics, kinetics and surface electromyography (sEMG) during barefoot walking were subjected to statistical analysis using one-dimensional Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM1D). Results: The Congenital Ankle Dorsiflexion-Limited Cohort (CDFL) had greater ankle dorsiflexion during the support phase (22-42%) than the Acquired Ankle Dorsiflexion-Limited Cohort (ADFL) (p = 0.003), with increased terminal plantar flexion torque and positive power, and higher average activation intensity of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM), while the power trajectory was close to that of the control group. The ADFL had higher plantar flexion torque during 0-83% of the gait cycle ( p = 0.001), increased knee flexion throughout the gait cycle ( p = 0.014), and elevated negative knee power and positive hip power in the middle and late stages, with increased average activation intensity of the rectus femoris (RF) and decreased activation intensity of the GM and tibialis anterior (TA). Conclusions: This study revealed phenotype-specific gait adaptations associated with different etiologies of ankle dorsiflexion limitation, ADFL predominantly exhibited a proximal-compensation pattern, whereas those with CDFL favored a distal strategy. These findings argue for etiology-tailored rehabilitation - strengthening ankle push-off and distal-proximal coordination in ADFL, and prioritizing terminal push-off and lateral stability in CDFL.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between anthropometric indices and kinematic underwater undulatory swimming (UUS) variables among young female swimmers. Methods: The following parameters were determined in 34 participants (age 16.74 &#xb1; 0.70 years, World Aquatics score 561 &#xb1; 64): body height (H), mass (M) and fat percentage (BF ), BMI, lengths of the lower limb (LL ), thigh (LT ), and calf (LC ), circumferences of thigh (CT ), maximum calf (CC MAX) and distal lower leg (CCDIS ), skinfolds on the thigh (FT ) and calf (FC ), as well as foot length (FL ) and width (WF ), based on which an estimated foot surface area was calculated (SF ). Using the kinematic analysis of UUS recordings, the following were determined: velocity (v), frequency ( f ), distance per cycle (DPC), amplitude of toe (A) and product of A &#xd7; f (IAf ). Pearson r correlation analysis was performed. Results: A relationship was observed between v and: CC MAX (r = 0.48), CCDIS (r = 0.39) and LF (r = 0.35). IAf was correlated with: CCDIS (r = 0.40), CC MAX (r = 0.39) and M (r = 0.35). A relationship was observed between A and F T (r = 0.45) and C T (r = 0.42), as well as DPC with FT (0.40) and CC MAX (0.37). Conclusions: The results indicate that the somatic structure has a small effect on the effectiveness and kinematic indices of UUS among young female swimmers.

Purpose: This study investigates cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow dynamics to enhance the understanding of brain biomechanics and the importance of CSF during high-impact loading. Methods: Comparative analyses were conducted using the benchmark model with smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), without cerebrospinal fluid, and with an additional element - the arachnoid trabeculae - which functions as rigid connections between the brain and skull. The numerical modelling of cerebrospinal fluid and the derived conclusions were validated and calibrated through experiments performed in the additional research phase. Results: The research emphasises the challenges of accurately modelling cerebrospinal fluid dynamics and brain biomechanics. The results were unexpected in several ways. Initially, a rigid cortex-skull connection was anticipated to yield results nearly identical to those observed in Hardy's experiments. Even more surprising were the results for the models with cerebrospinal fluid modelled as smoothed particle hydrodynamics and the model without cerebrospinal fluid, which showed almost identical results in comparison to each other. The novel physical experiment with a gelatine insert subjected to controlled loading and numerical model simulations revealed that SPH models exhibited closely resembling fluid displacement, while tetrahedral elements imposed unrealistic rigidity. Conclusions: The simulations and the novel experiment provide key insights into cerebrospinal fluid dynamics during traumatic brain injury. The findings suggest that the protective function of CSF might be less pronounced under extreme conditions than previously assumed. The smoothed particle hydrodynamics method demonstrates clear advantages over tetrahedral finite element approaches by offering superior brain-in-skull flexibility and avoiding the excessive rigidity inherent to traditional finite element models. We concluded that mechanism of brain protection by CSF is performed rather by hydraulic damping than the brain immersion in vast volume of CSF.