Given the challenges posed by late diagnosis of prostate cancer, rapid point-of-care testing is crucial to facilitate early intervention and enhance treatment effectiveness. In this context, 3D-printed immunosensors represent a promising alternative for the development of low-cost, miniaturized, and reliable diagnostic tools. Accordingly, a neodymium-based metal-organic framework (Nd-MOF) was integrated onto conductive 3D-printed electrodes to develop a label-free voltammetric immunosensor for the monitoring of prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Spectroscopic characterizations indicated the anchoring of the PSA antibody through the free carboxylic groups in the Nd-MOF structure. This platform exhibited redox behavior resulting from methylene blue adsorbed Nd-MOF, while its functional groups enabled PSA antibody immobilization. The different steps for the construction of 3D-printed immunosensor and the evaluation of PSA biorecognition were assessed by cyclic voltammetry. The 3D-printed immunosensor exhibited excellent analytical performance over a linear range of 0.50 to 50.0 ng mL-1, with a low limit of detection of 0.15 ng mL-1. Moreover, the platform showed remarkable repeatability (RSD <4.80%) and stability over successive measurements, confirming its reliability for accurate PSA monitoring. In addition, the 3D-printed immunosensor demonstrated sensitivity for PSA determination in spiked serum samples. The simple fabrication, and integration of methylene blue adsorbed Nd-MOF with 3D-printed electrodes highlight the potential of platform for point-of-care diagnostics, especially in resource-limited settings.
BackgroundPatient-specific three-dimensional (3D)-printed anatomical models are increasingly used for preoperative planning in spinal deformity surgery. Their potential to improve intraoperative efficiency is clinically attractive, but the available evidence remains limited. To assess whether preoperative planning assisted by patient-specific 3D-printed anatomical models improves surgical outcomes in patients undergoing surgery for non-traumatic spinal deformities and malformations, compared with conventional planning.MethodsA systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA 2020. Comparative studies evaluating patient-specific 3D-printed anatomical models for preoperative planning in pediatric or adult patients with non-traumatic spinal deformities were included. Studies primarily focused on intraoperative 3D-printed pedicle screw guides were excluded. Data on operative time, intraoperative blood loss, fluoroscopy time, and postoperative complications were extracted. Risk of bias was assessed using ROBINS-I.ResultsSix single-center comparative studies involving 344 patients were included. Operative time was reported in four studies; two showed significant reductions favoring 3D model-assisted planning, including 184.3 vs 212.3 min and 375 vs 456 min. Intraoperative blood loss was also reported in four studies; two found significantly lower blood loss in the intervention group, including 846.7 vs 1029.7 mL and 363 vs 442 mL. Postoperative complications were generally less frequent in intervention groups. Most studies were judged at serious risk of bias, and one at critical risk.ConclusionsPreoperative planning using patient-specific 3D-printed anatomical models may improve operative time and blood loss in non-traumatic spinal deformity surgery; however, the evidence remains methodologically weak, and long-term functional outcomes have not been evaluated.
Intraosseous access is a critical emergency procedure for rapid vascular access when peripheral intravenous insertion fails. Despite endorsement in emergency care guidelines, intraosseous use among clinicians remains limited, often due to inadequate exposure and procedural confidence. This quality improvement project evaluated the effectiveness of a low-cost, three-dimensional -printed simulation-based training intervention on emergency clinicians' intraosseous knowledge, technical proficiency, attitudes, and clinical utilization. A quasi-experimental, single-group pretest-posttest-follow-up design was implemented in a Midwestern community hospital. A total of 22 emergency clinicians completed a 3-phase "Crawl-Walk-Run" training program using anatomically realistic, three-dimensional-printed tibia/humerus intraosseous task trainers. Outcomes were assessed using the validated Intraosseous Training and Readiness Assessment in Nursing instrument and retrospective electronic medical record audits of nurse-initiated intraosseous insertions. Statistically significant improvements were observed in intraosseous knowledge (P < .001, g = 1.31) and technical skills (P < .001, g = 1.23), with sustained gains at 3-month follow-up. Confidence increased immediately post-training (P < .001) but declined modestly over time (P = .43). Electronic medical record review identified 5 successful nurse-initiated IO insertions within 3 months following the intervention, all achieving first-pass success, compared with 0 in the previous year comparison period. A low-cost, three-dimensional-printed simulation program significantly improved emergency clinicians' intraosseous knowledge, skill proficiency, and short-term clinical utilization. These findings support three-dimensional-printed simulation as a sustainable educational strategy to enhance readiness for high-acuity, low-occurrence procedures in emergency nursing practice.
Three-dimensional (3D) printed surgical guides have improved the transfer of virtual implant planning to the clinical setting. However, autoclave sterilization may expose photopolymer resins to thermal and hygrometric stress, potentially affecting their dimensional stability. This study evaluated whether moist heat sterilization at 121 °C induces dimensional changes in 3D-printed surgical guides that could compromise implant placement accuracy. Ten identical maxillary models were used to fabricate standardized surgical guides based on a single digital plan. Five guides were sterilized in an autoclave at 121 °C (test group), while five were not sterilized (control group). The guides were produced from intraoral scanning and tomography of a randomly selected model and 3D printed from the same digital file. Linear and angular deviations between planned and obtained positions were measured through digital scanning and analyzed using GOM software. Statistical comparisons were performed using paired t-tests, with reference values from previous studies used to define acceptable precision margins. No statistically significant differences were observed between sterilized and non-sterilized guides for angular deviations within 4° (p = 1.000) and 2° (p = 0.203). Linear deviations also remained within acceptable limits, with no significant differences beyond 1 mm (p = 1.000) or 0.68 mm (p = 1.000). These findings indicate that autoclave sterilization at 121 °C does not produce clinically relevant distortions in the precision of 3D-printed surgical guides. However, further studies are needed to evaluate potential material fragility and the impact of alternative sterilization methods.
To describe the interdisciplinary development of two 3D-printed anatomical models-a trigeminal nerve model and a lower airway model-and to explore their perceived usefulness in the teaching of human gross anatomy. This study presents an interdisciplinary experience of design, fabrication, and initial educational evaluation of 3D-printed anatomical models developed to support anatomy teaching in an institutional context with limited access to cadaveric material. This methodological and educational study was conducted in three phases. First, teaching and learning needs in human gross anatomy were identified through classroom-based inquiry and faculty input. Second, two anatomical models were designed and fabricated from medical imaging data using segmentation, computer-aided design, and additive manufacturing workflows. Third, the models were evaluated in educational settings through structured user feedback focused on usability, physical design, integration with study materials, and perceived contribution to learning. Two 3D-printed anatomical models were developed to represent complex anatomical structures relevant to anatomy teaching. Participants rated the models positively across usability, design features, integration with other learning resources, and perceived support for anatomical understanding. The questionnaire showed acceptable internal consistency, and the findings suggest that the models were well received as complementary educational resources in the classroom. This study supports the feasibility of an interdisciplinary workflow for the development of 3D-printed anatomical models to support the teaching of human gross anatomy in contexts with limited access to cadaver-based resources. The preliminary assessment indicates positive user perception and supports their use as complementary teaching tools. Future studies should include controlled comparisons and objective learning outcomes to assess their educational impact more robustly.
Inkjet printing offers a promising non-contact route toward high-throughput, large-area manufacturing of functional films for next-generation optoelectronic devices. However, the broader adoption in continuous production lines is hindered by the coffee-ring effect that compromises film uniformity. Additionally, existing printable inks rely predominantly on nanoscale particles (<100 nm), which constrains material selection. Herein, we developed a green aqueous ink based on microscale K2V6O16·1.5H2O (KVO) and a water/1,2-propylene glycol (1,2-PG) cosolvent system. The optimized ink exhibits excellent rheological properties for stable ejection, even with micron-sized particles. Critically, the 1,2-PG effectively inhibits the coffee-ring effect by reducing the surface tension, allowing uniform deposition of large particles without the use of insulating surfactants. Therefore, a continuously patterned electrochromic film can be directly printed, which exhibits reversible multicolor transitions and remarkable cycling stability. Furthermore, we assembled a large-scale electrochromic device (21.0 × 29.7 cm2) with a complex pattern based on the printed KVO film, which demonstrates uniform and reversible color changes across the active area. Our ink formulation offers a green, surfactant-free alternative to traditional electrochromic inks and demonstrates that large-sized functional particles can be uniformly printed via synergistic Marangoni flow and viscosity control, expanding the material scope for inkjet-printed electrochromic devices.
3D-printed gelatin scaffolds are widely explored for bone regeneration due to their excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, yet their clinical translation is severely hindered by several inherent defects, including weak mechanical stability, fast in vivo biodegradation, limited osteogenic capability, and the absence of anti-infective functions. Globally, it remains a key challenge in bone tissue engineering to develop integrated scaffold systems that simultaneously satisfy mechanical matching, long-term biological activity, and anti-pathogenic requirements. To address this challenge, a multifunctional CHm/PCA/Cu2+/ε-PL@Gel-OCS scaffold with enhanced mechanical properties, outstanding antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, pro-vascularization and osteogenic activities was developed via cryogenic 3D printing of a gelatin (Gel)/oxidized chondroitin sulfate (OCS) composite ink loaded with chitosan microspheres surface-functionalized by protocatechuic aldehyde (PCA), copper ions (Cu2+) and ε-polylysine (ε-PL). Scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis confirmed uniform dispersion of the microspheres and sustained release of therapeutic agents as the scaffold degraded. Rheological and mechanical testing demonstrated excellent print fidelity, interconnected porosity (161 ± 37 μm pores), and compressive strengths (100-200 MPa) suitable for cortical bone repair. Such porous structure and mechanical performance are highly compatible with human cortical bone microenvironment, which facilitates cell infiltration, nutrient exchange and mechanical load bearing. In vitro release studies revealed a sequential sustained release profile (OCS > Cu2+ > ε-PL), ensuring a sustainable osteogenic, angiogenic, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activity. The scaffold achieved 100% bactericidal efficiency against both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, suppressed protein denaturation (anti-inflammation), and promoted neovascularization in a chick chorioallantoic membrane assay. Biocompatibility assays using MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts showed enhanced cell adhesion, proliferation, and live/dead viability over 5 days. Osteogenic potential was significantly elevated on the multifunctional scaffold, as evidenced by time-dependent increases in ALP activity, mineral deposition (Alizarin Red S), and upregulated expression of ALP, RUNX2, OPN, and OCN genes compared with Gel and Gel-OCS controls. Taken together, our cryogenic 3D-printed Gel-OCS scaffold incorporating PCA/Cu2+/ε-PL-functionalized chitosan microspheres provides a single-step, customizable platform that combines robust mechanical properties with multi-modal therapeutic functionalities. Different from conventional single-function bone scaffolds reported in most international studies, this multi-component synergistic design successfully realizes the integration of mechanical reinforcement, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, vascularization and osteogenesis functions in one system. These promising preclinical results highlight a novel therapeutic strategy for bone defect regeneration, it solves the common bottlenecks of traditional gelatin-based bone scaffolds, provides a feasible and universal fabrication strategy for high-performance multifunctional bone repair materials, and offers new insights for the global development and clinical translation of 3D-printed bone tissue engineering scaffolds.
Printed electronics is an emerging technology that has already transformed the world around us by enabling the fabrication of flexible, lightweight, and large-area electronic devices. However, achieving simultaneous optimization of electrical conductivity, environmental stability, mechanical flexibility, and cost efficiency remains a critical challenge. Nanowires (NWs) have gained prominence in various applications due to their high surface area to volume ratio. Silver NWs (Ag NWs) in particular have established themselves as leading platforms for transparent conductive electrodes (TCE), however their high cost and material consumption limit widespread adoption. While copper NWs (Cu NWs) offer cost advantages and comparable conductivity to silver; rapid oxidation and corresponding increase in resistivity in ambient conditions restrict their widespread adoption. Cu@Ag core-shell NWs (Cu@Ag NWs) are a promising solution, combining the cost efficiency of copper with the oxida0074ion resistance of silver through a strategic thin-shell design. This mini-review focuses on recent advances in Cu@Ag NWs synthesis, focusing particularly on kinetically controlled approaches that achieve conformal silver shells lowering the consumption of silver. We examine synthesis methodologies, including galvanic displacement and chemical reduction, discuss mechanisms underlying long-term environmental stability, and evaluate integration pathways for printed electronics applications including, transparent conductive films, flexible displays, wearable devices, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding. Challenges and future considerations, including shell uniformity control, ink formulation optimization, and multi-functional coating systems incorporating protective oxide layers, are also addressed. This review provides a comprehensive framework for advancing Cu@Ag NWs technology toward practical commercial implementation in next-generation flexible and printed electronics.
Simulation has become central in flexible ureteroscopy training and research; however, the lack of standardized and reproducible models limits objective performance assessment. We aimed to evaluate the reliability and reproducibility of laser lithotripsy using morphology-specific artificial stones (AS) within a standardized ex vivo platform and to assess whether the model could detect operator-dependent differences in lithotripsy performance. This study was conducted using AS derived from 3D-printed images of human kidney stones. Six stone volume categories (F1-F6; 250-1750 mm³) were reproduced using BegoStone® mixture with ratio of 15:4. Novice and expert surgeons performed in vitro laser lithotripsy under standardized settings. Performance metrics included ablation efficiency (AE) (mm³/J), energy consumption (J/mm³), lasing time consumption (s/mm³), and laser ablation rate (AR) (mm³/min). Results were compared with six matched in vivo reference cases. Adjusted linear models were used to evaluate the effect of operator experience. In vivo lithotripsy showed a mean laser-on time of 44.9 ± 17.0 minutes, total energy delivery of 32.35 ± 12.2 kJ, AE of 0.03 ± 0.00 mm³/J, and laser AR of 21.9 ± 1.78 mm³/min, with complete stone clearance in all cases. AS experiments demonstrated shorter laser-on-time than in vivo procedures (37.4-38.3 vs 44.9 minutes, p < 0.01), lower energy delivery (26.9-27.9 vs 32.35 kJ, p < 0.01), higher AE (0.04 vs 0.03 mm³/J, p < 0.01), and higher laser AR (26.0-26.8 vs 21.9 mm³/min, p < 0.01). In unadjusted aggregated comparison, expert surgeons showed higher performances than novices, although the differences did not reach statistical significance (p > 0.05). Adjusted analysis showed that operator experience was significantly associated with both better AE and AR (p < 0.01). The standardized ex vivo platform, combining a validated simulation model with 3D-printed morphology-specific AS, provides a reliable and reproducible environment for evaluating laser lithotripsy performance, supporting the objective metrics assessment.
Bone is a mineralized connective tissue composed of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, and its integrity is essential for structural and physiological function. Defects arising from trauma, tumors, or developmental abnormalities often require surgical reconstruction to restore normal performance. Autografts and allografts have long served as standard treatments for bone repair, however, their usefulness is restricted by limited availability, donor‑site complications, and the potential transmission of underlying diseases. These challenges have accelerated interest in bone tissue engineering (BTE) as an alternative strategy capable of enhancing regeneration while reducing postoperative risks. Advances in three‑dimensional (3D) printing have introduced powerful technique for fabrication of scaffolds with precisely controlled architectures and tunable mechanical and biological characteristics. This technology enables the creation of porous constructs that mimic the structural complexity of native bone, supporting cell infiltration, nutrient transport, and vascularization. Effective scaffolds for BTE must demonstrate biocompatibility, biodegradability, appropriate strength and stiffness, and the ability to promote osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Among natural polymers, alginate (Alg) has become a prominent candidate due to its inherent biocompatibility, degradability, abundance, low cost, and non‑immunogenic nature. Its versatility makes it suitable for developing customized 3D‑printed scaffolds. Additionally, bioactive glasses (BGs) are widely incorporated into composite scaffolds because their composition closely resembles the mineral phase of bone. BGs significantly enhance osteoconductivity, support mineral deposition, and can improve the mechanical resilience of polymer-based constructs. This review highlights recent progress in 3D‑printed Alg-based scaffolds for BTE, emphasizing how advanced fabrication techniques and BGs incorporation contribute to improved biological performance and structural reinforcement.
To investigate effects of repeated training with anatomically varied versus identical 3D-printed models on skill acquisition, cognitive load, and skill retention in novice mastoidectomy trainees. A prospective, randomized, controlled, educational trial conducted April to September 2024 including a 3-month retention test. Simulation center at a single academic teaching hospital. Twenty-four novice medical students were randomized 1:1 into 2 groups: The Identical Models (IM) group practiced repeated procedures on identical 3D-printed temporal bone models (control) and the Variable Model (VM) group practiced on a varied selection of models (intervention). Trainees completed 10 anatomical mastoidectomy procedures with posterior tympanotomy followed by 2 retention test procedures after 3-months of nonpractice. The primary outcome was performance assessed with 25-point modified Welling Scale. The secondary outcome was cognitive load estimated by relative reaction time measured on a secondary task. At end-of-training, the VM group scored 20.6 points (95% CI [19.2-22.0]), outperforming the IM group who scored an average of 18.2 points (95% CI [16.7-19.6], P = .02). At 3‑month retention testing, the VM group's scores decayed by a mean of 5.6 points on the repeated model (95% CI [-7.2 to-4.0], P < .001) and of 3.7 points when introduced to a new model (95% CI [-5.2 to-2.1], P < .001). The IM group showed no decay thereby demonstrating better skill retention which aligned with reduced relative reaction time (cognitive load) during training. Educators can optimize mastoidectomy skills acquisition and retention by instructional design that prioritize repeated practice on anatomically identical models until basic skills have been acquired.
The development of new analytical tools remains a powerful approach in analytical chemistry, and three-dimensional (3D) printing has gained increasing popularity as a manufacturing technique in recent years. The fabrication of experimental tools using 3D printers has attracted attention in many fields. However, objects fabricated by fused filament fabrication (FFF) may contain gaps between printed paths, and which can cause leakage when liquid is introduced. In this study, solvent-based post-processing was performed in order to fill layer gaps in FFF-printed polypropylene fluidic chips. As methods, a compression process and solvent-based post-processing were applied. In the compression process, a polypropylene fluidic chip was compressed using a compression tool while being heated. After this compression process, solvent-based post-processing was conducted. The post-processed chip was used to measure peak profile during flow-injection measurement. As a result, peak profiles were obtained, and no leakage from the chip was observed during the measurements.
We present the case of a 47-year-old male with a post-traumatic facial deformity after electrocution injury and a fall that occurred two years prior to consultation. The patient presented with ectropion on the left, hypoglobus, and step-off deformities on the left malar area owing to the loss of a large portion of the inferior orbital rim, orbital floor, and the zygomatic bone. House-Brackmann IV facial palsy was also present on the left hemiface since the injury. A 3D-printed biocompatible zygomatic implant was fabricated using Polyetheretherketone (PEEK). This case highlights the versatility of PEEK for facial implants and the importance of virtual surgical planning and 3-D printing in the management of post-traumatic facial defects.
This study evaluated the effectiveness of four irrigation techniques used during root canal treatment [conventional irrigation (CU), Irriflex (IF), Easy Clean (EC), and passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI)] in removing calcium hydroxide-based and calcium silicate-based intracanal medications from the isthmus of mesial root canals in 3D-printed mandibular molar replicas. A mandibular molar with presence of an isthmus in the mesial roots and moderate curvature was instrumented with Reciproc R40.06, scanned by Micro Computed Tomography (micro-CT), and used as model to create 64 standardized translucent resin replicas. The mesial roots and isthmus areas were filled with Ultracal XS or Bio-C Temp and scanned again. After 7 days, replicas were reinstrumented and subjected to the irrigation protocols, followed by micro-CT analysis of medication removal. The percentage of remaining intracanal medication volume was analyzed using a t-test. The percentage of medication removed in the isthmus area was also calculated and analyzed using two-way ANOVA (p < 0.05) to evaluate the effects of different factors, followed by Tukey's post hoc test for multiple comparisons. PUI promoted the highest removal of Ultracal XS in percentage (98.2 ± 2.28) (p < 0.05), with no differences among the other techniques. For Bio-C Temp, all protocols performed similarly. PUI showed similar performance for both medications, while the other techniques removed Bio-C Temp more effectively than Ultracal XS.
In the field of 3D printing technology in the medical application is becoming more and more widely, especially in orthopaedic surgery, its importance is increasingly prominent. This technology through precise biological tissue engineering, and can be produced with the patient's own tissue matching the artificial bone implants, thus in the bone graft surgery and cosmetic surgery play a key role. With the deepening of the research found that different material and printing method can significantly affect the artificial bone implant biological specificity and clinical effect. In addition, the personalization of 3D printing implants can better adapt to the patient's anatomical structure, improve the success rate of surgery and patient satisfaction. In recent years, 3D printing technology in expanding the application of orthopedic surgery, its potential value also gradually by mining. Therefore the author through the reviews in recent years, 3D biological technology and 3D printing to print and the research status of the artificial bone implants, as well as their application in orthopedic surgery and potential value, in order to provide new ideas for the research of the field.
The design of scaffolds for bone repair remains a multidisciplinary challenge, requiring an effective balance between interconnected porosity, mechanical performance, and biological functionality. In this context, the combination of natural polymers with bioactive ceramics has emerged as a promising strategy. In this work, composite scaffolds composed of hydroxyapatite (HA), sodium alginate (Na-alg), and graphene oxide (GO) were fabricated by material extrusion 3D printing. GO was incorporated at a low concentration (0.245 wt%) directly into the HA/Na-alg ink prior to printing. The addition of GO did not significantly affect the rheological behavior of the ink, enabling the fabrication of scaffolds with high fidelity to the designed geometry. Uniaxial compression testing revealed a significant enhancement in mechanical performance, with compressive strength increasing from 1.2 MPa for GO-free scaffolds to 2.3 MPa for GO-containing scaffolds. The scaffolds exhibited strong inhibition of S. aureus growth for both compositions. Cytocompatibility was assessed using alveolar bone-derived mesenchymal stem cells (aBMSCs) treated with scaffold extracts. Cell viability remained above 70% at 1 and 3 days for both HA/Na-alg and HA/GO/Na-alg scaffolds, with a slight reduction observed at day 7 (∼69% and ∼60%, respectively). Fluorescence staining confirmed well-spread cells with normal morphology and increasing density over 48 h, indicating the absence of cytotoxic effects. Overall, HA/GO/Na-alg composite scaffolds can be successfully produced via material extrusion 3D printing, combining enhanced mechanical performance with antibacterial activity and cytocompatibility, supporting their potential application in bone repair.
Lower-limb impairment caused by neurological injury, musculoskeletal disorders, or reduced mobility often requires repetitive rehabilitation exercises, but continuous therapist-assisted therapy may be difficult to access in low-resource settings. In this study, we developed and preliminarily evaluated a low-cost, lightweight, portable hip-knee exoskeleton prototype capable of generating controlled hip and knee joint motion for rehabilitation-oriented range-of-motion training. The prototype was constructed mainly of 3D-printed polylactic acid parts and powered by a pair of high-torque servo motors in the hip and knee joints. A Bluetooth-connected Android app was programmed to offer two modes: rehabilitation mode for independent joint control and a gait-inspired sinusoidal mode that generates coordinated hip and knee joint trajectories. The cost of the materials used to construct the prototype is estimated to be USD 155 with a weight of about 2.1 kg. Joint motion performance was assessed through time-angle measurements at three predefined speed settings. The hip joint (approximately 60° movement) was achieved in 2.2, 1.6, and 1.1 s and the knee joint (approximately 140° movement) was achieved in 3.0, 2.0, and 0.6 s for slow, medium and fast modes, respectively. The trial-to-trial variation in commanded servo position remained below ±1° under the tested conditions. The results demonstrate the feasibility of generating repeatable commanded hip and knee joint motion under controlled laboratory conditions. However, further investigations involving quantitative load-bearing evaluation, safety assessment, user studies, and clinical trials are required before the system can be considered for practical rehabilitation applications.
To develop and evaluate a novel biomimetic temporal bone simulator using a segmented, multi-material hybrid 3D-printing strategy with a setup for simulated bleeding. A modular simulator was fabricated using stereolithography for the bony framework (including mastoid air cells), PolyJet full-color printing for key neuro-otologic structures (e.g., facial nerve, inner ear, ossicles), and WJP printing for soft tissues (e.g., auricle, tympanic membrane, vessels). A spring-driven syringe setup delivered blood-mimicking fluid to simulate sigmoid sinus bleeding during drilling. Eight senior otologists evaluated the simulator using a Likert 5-point scale. The simulator successfully reproduced major anatomical landmarks and supported common otologic procedures. Manufacturing cost was approximately USD 80 per unit. Overall fidelity ratings were favorable, with most item means between 3.8 and 4.9. The facial nerve similarity item scored lower (mean 3.8 ± 0.71; 62.5% endorsement). Internal consistency was acceptable for fidelity (α = 0.63; 95% CI: 0.09-0.91) and good for perceived educational value(α = 0.90; 95% CI: 0.74-0.98). All perceived educational value items were rated between 3.8 and 4.7. A biomimetic, modular temporal bone simulator produced via a segmented multi-material hybrid 3D-printing strategy demonstrated favorable expert-rated realism and perceived educational value. The incorporation of simulated bleeding may enhance training relevance. This platform may serve as a potential adjunct to cadaveric training for stepwise skill acquisition and complication management rehearsal in otology.
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