Bacterial flagellin (flg), a key MAMP, activates plant immunity against various diseases. Solavetivone is a major sesquiterpenoid phytoalexin that forms one layer of defense against fungi pathogens in Solanaceae plants. However, the function of compound and biosynthetic pathway genes of solavetivone in Solanaceae plants against Meloidogyne incognita has not been explored. In this study, we discovered 49 differentially expressed genes through RNA-seq analysis of tomato plants treated with Pseudomonas fragi flagellin flg22pf and M. incognita, among them two of the solavetivone synthesis genes, premnaspirodiene oxygenase (K15472) and vetispiradiene synthase (K14182) were found with function against M. incognita. Further subcellular localization indicated that K15472 is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and cell membrane, whereas K14182 is localized to the nucleus, cell membrane, and ER. The contents of solavetivone in K14182 and K15472 over-expressing plants increased by 6.21 and 4.57 folds. Correspondingly, the number of nematodes in the roots of tomato plants with over-expression of these two genes was significantly lower than that in the roots of wild-type (WT) tomato plants. Subsequently, the Pluronic F-127 model demonstrated that solavetivone exhibited a concentration-dependent dual effect: a low concentration (0.01 mg/L) attracted M. incognita, and a high concentration (≥0.1 mg/L) repelled it. Furthermore, the external application of solavetivone at 5 mg/L and 10 mg/L led to a significant reduction of nematode infestation in potted plants. These results collectively verify that P. fragi flagellin flg22pf triggers solavetivone synthesis to increase tomato plant resistance against M. incognita by stimulating the expression of K14182 and K15472 genes.
Insect collections offer a unique and practical way to enrich students' education at every level. Collecting insects and identifying specimens provides an active, hands-on activity that connects students to the natural world in a way that lectures alone cannot. With the advancement of technology, non-lethal approaches to traditional museum collections can still provide an experiential learning opportunity without the need for ethical considerations. This review emphasizes the significance of insect exposure in primary school, secondary school, undergraduate instruction, and public outreach settings, utilizing both traditional and contemporary methods. The goal at all levels is to share information about the diversity and uniqueness of insects while reducing the fear and stigma surrounding entomology. While traditional insect collections have justifiable applications, newly developed non-lethal methods are just as valid. Determining the most suitable methods for the target audience is crucial for the future of entomology. This article is part of the 2025 Collaborative Publication Program organized by the Entomological Society of America Student Affairs Committee to address emerging issues in Entomology.
Effective management of cockroaches in multifamily housing presents a significant challenge. Despite the negative impacts of German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae), on human health and well-being as well as data-based integrated pest management (IPM) solutions to cockroach problems, infestations continue to persist. Residents of multifamily housing, who are facing cockroach infestations, represent a critical insight into this gap in implementation of effective pest solutions. Thus, there is a need to understand what factors drive the lack of adoption of IPM for cockroach control in multifamily housing. A nationally distributed survey of renters living in multifamily housing with cockroaches was used to gauge resident experiences with and perceptions of cockroaches and cockroach control in their homes. The results of this survey (N = 926) reflected that a majority of respondents (i) had previously experienced cockroaches during childhood and were unbothered; (ii) associated cockroaches with negative impacts to human health; (iii) will either report cockroach problems to property management or do something about it themselves (eg, mechanical control, apply pesticide products, hire professional pest control); (iv) are mostly and equally satisfied with products they purchase and apply and professional pest control they hire (despite a noted continual presence of cockroaches in their homes). These findings establish a comprehensive dataset of perceptions of and experiences with cockroach infestations, which can be applied to developing more successful management strategies for German cockroaches in multifamily housing.
Studies of coevolution, ecosystem processes, and latitudinal diversity gradients are improved by understanding variation in resource specialization. Insect herbivory is one of the most ubiquitous terrestrial ecological associations, and is important for understanding the evolution of both plants and insects, yet the processes underlying global variation in diet breadth remain poorly understood. Here, we use global datasets of butterfly and plant distributions to investigate the patterns and drivers of butterfly larval diet breadth. Diet breadth showed a negative relationship with plant family richness, but this was offset by a direct effect of temperature acting in the opposite direction. Islands generally harbor species with broader diets, but islands with higher endemism had narrower diets than average. Our study provides a global baseline for understanding how plant and herbivore interactions structure ecological communities in the face of global environmental changes.
Potato cyst nematodes (Globodera pallida and G. rostochiensis) are quarantine pests that threaten global potato production. While European and North American populations often exhibit limited genetic diversity, native Andean populations possess a broader virulence spectrum. This study evaluated the virulence of 10 Peruvian Globodera populations compared to U.S. reference populations (G. pallida Pa2/3 from Idaho and G. rostochiensis Ro1 from New York) using a panel of potato genotypes comprising standard differentials, breeding clones, and commercial varieties. While the U.S. populations displayed expected virulence profiles, the Peruvian populations exhibited high diversity and complex virulence phenotypes. We identified a distinct "Pa1-like" G. pallida lineage (PER10) that was avirulent on H2 resistance in clone P55/7, a differential typically susceptible to the U.S. G. pallida population, and partially overcame the Pa2/3 resistance in the variety 'Maria Huanca'. Furthermore, specific Andean G. pallida populations (e.g., PER22) were virulent, overcoming partial resistance in the H3 breeding clone 12674ab1 with significantly higher reproduction than the U.S. G. pallida population. In contrast, the H1 gene in clone NY121, which confers resistance to G. rostochiensis Ro1, remained effective against the Andean G. rostochiensis population (PER26). These findings quantify a significant virulence gap between the U.S. and Peruvian Globodera populations, indicating that current U.S. resistance sources may be vulnerable to specific Andean Globodera lineages. The results underscore the necessity of strict quarantine measures and the pyramiding of diverse resistance genes to manage the virulence reservoir present in these native populations.
Adult mosquitoes rely on plant-derived sugars for survival, reproduction, and flight, yet the plant taxa that mosquitoes encounter in nature and the odors that make those plants attractive remain poorly understood. Most studies of mosquito attraction to plant odors have focused on candidate plants selected a priori, rather than plants linked to field-collected mosquitoes. Here, we combined plant DNA barcoding, semi-field behavioral assays, and volatile profiling to identify field-associated plant resources relevant to Aedes aegypti. Plant DNA recovered from mosquitoes collected across three Florida counties revealed broad plant associations, including 90 genera spanning 37 families, with several taxa recurring across counties or appearing prominently within particular localities. Behavioral experiments in semi-field sticky-trap assays found that five field-associated plant taxa were significantly attractive relative to blank controls, indicating that taxa associated with mosquitoes in nature can also function as attractive cues under semi-field conditions. GC-MS analyses of headspace collections from 42 plant taxa detected 211 volatile compounds and revealed substantial variation in both total emission rate and odor composition among taxa. Although several compounds, including α-pinene, limonene, 4-ethylacetophenone, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, 4-ethylbenzaldehyde, and caryophyllene, were broadly distributed across plant groups, volatile profiles differed significantly among taxa and shared compounds often occurred at markedly different proportional abundances. The five behaviorally tested taxa likewise showed both overlap and divergence, sharing 17 compounds across all five taxa while differing in dominant constituents and total emissions. Together, these results show that Ae. aegypti interacts with a diverse set of plants in the field, and suggests nectar-seeking is shaped not simply by plant identity or total odor abundance, but by the composition and proportional structure of plant odors.
"Sex" is a compound of many different concepts that contribute to a multiplicity of meanings. As a result, "sex" appears in a wide range of scientific research for different purposes, from describing a process of recombination and cell division to systems of categorising individuals. Identifying the meaning of "sex" in any particular context requires understanding the construction of contributing component concepts and their relationship with one another. We offer the metaphor of a labyrinth to describe the process of interpreting the meaning "sex" and uncovering its context-dependent purpose. In this way, the meanings of "sex" related to "sexual reproduction", "sex types", "sex determination", and/or "sexual systems" can be elucidated by identifying how these concepts relate to suppositions about what properties of "recombination, "meiosis", "syngamy", or "gametes" are present and to which aspects of a trait, individual, or lineage they apply. By denoting "sex" and related terminology within quotation marks, we emphasise the contextualism of language in the theory and practise of research and resultant knowledge about the natural world. The structure of a labyrinth reflects the incredible capacity of "sex" to describe the diversity and disparity of eukaryotic reproductive systems. The analytical framework of the labyrinth highlights that many branching paths lead to distinct destinations and different conceptual versions can arise in the consideration of reproductive trait evolution based on the inclusions and possible connections among concepts. Through a critical evaluation of the concepts that contribute to the labyrinth of "sex" across biology, we gain a more nuanced appreciation for the operation of "sex" within scientific knowledge.
Sting (Belonolaimus longicaudatus) and stubby-root nematodes (Nanidorus minor) are major plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) of spring potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) in Florida. Fumigation is the primary PPN management tactic for growers in the area, but more options are needed. Cover cropping is one of the few potential PPN management options that fit this cropping system. The objective of this study was to test the efficacy of summer and fall cover crops combinations against sting and stubby-root nematode in potato production. Two field trials were conducted in 2022-2023 and 2024-2025. Experiments had a split-plot arrangement. Summer cover crops 1) sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea 'Crescent Sun'), and 2) sorghum-sudangrass (Sorghum x drummondii 'SX19/Defiance') were main plot treatments. Sub-plot treatments were fall cover crops 1) caliente mustard (Brassica juncea 'Rojo') and 2) arugula (Eruca sativa 'Nemat'), 3) weedy fallow and 4) weedy fallow followed by 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) fumigation. Sunn hemp generally suppressed sting nematode populations relative to sorghum-sudangrass although its effect on stubby-root nematode was inconsistent. Arugula or caliente mustard were not effective for managing sting and stubby-root nematode populations. Weedy fallow followed by 1,3-D provided the most sting nematode suppression of any fall treatments. Sunn hemp improved potato marketable yield in one of the trials, while arugula and caliente mustard reduced marketable yield of potato in both years compared to 1,3-D. In summary, sunn hemp is an additional tool to 1,3-D fumigation for managing sting nematode in potatoes, but arugula and caliente mustard are detrimental. No options were consistently effective against stubby-root nematode.
Over 80% of animal species rely on exoskeletal cuticle for body stabilization and protection from the environment, including predators, conspecifics, and pathogens. Therefore, the exoskeleton should be thick and robust; insects with thin cuticles are likely to be more vulnerable to injuries, desiccation, pathogens, and insecticides, and are less likely to survive attacks by predators. Aside from internal processes that influence cuticle deposition, environmental factors can have large effects on the rate and quantity of cuticle deposited during juvenile and adult stages. However, we currently lack a comprehensive understanding of the various environmental factors that shape cuticle development. We therefore provide an overview of the existing literature on key environmental factors including temperature, diet, and insecticides, that shape insect cuticle deposition and overall robustness. By synthesizing empirical evidence examining the relationship between these environmental factors and cuticle thickness, we identify broad, generalizable patterns across taxa and identify exciting, clear paths for future research.
The development of eco-friendly pest management strategies is crucial for sustainable agriculture. In this study, we investigated the bioactivity of Solidago canadensis leaf extract against Meloidogyne incognita juveniles (J2). In vitro assays showed that aqueous extracts exhibited greater nematistatic (immobilizing) activity than less polar solvent extracts. Fractionation of the aqueous decoction extract using column chromatography yielded 11 fractions (F), which were evaluated at 100, 200, and 300 mg L- 1. The crude extract showed 100% nematistatic activity at all concentrations, while among the fractions, F5, F7, and F9 were the most effective. In the pot experiment, the crude extract and F7 reduced gall formation by 55.3%, whereas F8, despite low in vitro nematistatic activity (21.5%), achieved the highest gall reduction (58.7%). Unexpectedly, some fractions increased gall formation. GC-MS analysis of F7 and F8 revealed 20 phytochemical compounds, including several with reported nematode-suppressive properties. These findings underscore the potential of S. canadensis extracts and specific fractions as botanical nematistatic agents and emphasize the importance of combining the in vitro and pot bioassays when evaluating botanical nematicides.
Insecticides can greatly limit the impacts of cockroaches on indoor environment and human health. Insecticide resistance, however, reduces the efficacy of insecticides and increases insecticide use by both residents and pest control professionals. This study examined the relationship between insecticide cross-resistance and associated gene expression across nine different German cockroach populations from the eastern U.S. Using vial bioassays, we identified significantly correlated resistance between three insecticides from different classes (indoxacarb, lambda-cyhalothrin, fipronil), with potential cross-resistance between indoxacarb and lambda-cyhalothrin being the most strongly correlated. In gene expression studies, we found that cockroach cytochrome P450 expression was most strongly associated with apparent cross-resistance across populations, while microbial gene expression was more variable. These findings provide new insights on cross-resistance and associated mechanisms that can broadly impact resistance management in this important urban pest.
Environmental sex determination (ESD) enables organisms to adjust their sexual fate in response to external cues. Fluctuating sex ratios have long suggested the presence of ESD in populations of plant-parasitic nematodes. We show that in the potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida sex is regulated by nutritional cues. By manipulating sucrose availability to the host plant, we could steer the sex determination of G. pallida. Whereas high-sucrose medium promotes female development, low-sucrose medium promotes male development. Transcriptome analyses on the early stages of parasitism reveal that female development requires extensive transcriptional activation and post-transcriptional regulation. We identify Gp-lin-29, a transcription factor homologous to lin-29 in Caenorhabditis elegans, as a potential regulator of ESD. Small RNA sequencing uncovered the male-biased expression of Gp-let-7, a putative repressor of Gp-lin-29, and the female-biased expression of four miRNAs, including Gp-miR-100, located at the same genomic locus as Gp-let-7. Target prediction and enrichment analyses suggest that these female-biased miRNAs may actively suppress male developmental programs. Together, our findings support a model in which G. pallida juveniles follow a default male developmental trajectory unless redirected by favourable environmental cues to become female. This study provides mechanistic insight into ESD in cyst nematodes and positions G. pallida as a tractable system for exploring epigenetic regulation of developmental plasticity.
Thrips parvispinus is an invasive and highly polyphagous pest that has recently expanded its distribution worldwide, creating an urgent need for effective and sustainable management strategies. Functional response analysis provides baseline information for evaluating predator performance and supporting the development of biological control programs. In this study, we investigated the functional responses of 3 generalist predators, Amblydromalus limonicus, Amblyseius swirskii, and Franklinothrips vespiformis, against first- and second-instar larvae of T. parvispinus under laboratory conditions. Predation assays were conducted across multiple prey densities, and functional response type, attack rate, and handling time were estimated using logistic regression and random predator equation. All predator groups for which parameter estimation was possible exhibited Type II functional responses. Female predatory mites showed higher proportion of prey consumed than males, whereas functional response determination for males was frequently limited by low consumption, particularly when larger prey stages were provided. F. vespiformis showed substantially higher maximum consumption and shorter handling time than predatory mites. Between mite species, A. limonicus tended to perform better at low prey densities, whereas A. swirskii exhibited higher maximum consumption. Overall, all 3 predators demonstrated potential as biological control agents of T. parvispinus. The functional response parameters obtained in this study provide baseline information for developing biological control programs targeting this invasive thrips species.
Recent survey efforts in Madagascar have focused on the tribe Oecleini in the planthopper family Cixiidae due to an interest in identifying vectors of palm lethal decline phytoplasmas. During these surveys, planthoppers were collected on palms in natural habitats that were determined to represent a new genus, Geminimyndus gen. nov. Herein, two new species are described, G. spinaparum sp. nov. and G. spinamagnus sp. nov.Eumyndus perinetensis Synave is transferred to Geminimyndus gen. nov. as Geminimyndus perinetensis, comb. nov. Supplemental molecular data for the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, histone 3, 18S rRNA and 28S rRNA are provided to support the establishment of the new genus and the transfer of E. perinetensis to the new genus.
Eco-friendly management of Meloidogyne incognita remains a major challenge. Although several plant-origin bioactive compounds (POBCs) have shown efficacy against M. incognita, comparative evaluation to identify priority candidates for formulation and validation remains limited. This study evaluated bio-efficacy and potential interaction profiles of 16 POBCs against M. incognita through in vitro, glasshouse and in silico approaches. At 500 μg mL-1, isothiocyanates (allyl- and 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate) and several aldehydes (benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, p-anisaldehyde, trans-cinnamaldehyde) reported strong ovicidal (88-100% egg mortality at 72 h) and nematicidal (100% J2 mortality at 24 h) responses. Median lethal concentration (LC50) values across POBCs ranged widely (1.1-2635.6 μg mL-1), with isothiocyanates and aldehydes showing the lowest LC50 (1.1-34.5 μg mL-1) and fatty acids the highest (1441.3-2635.6 μg mL-1). Micromorphological observations of treated J2 revealed translucency changes, straightened posture and progressive intestinal vacuolation after exposure to isothiocyanates, aldehydes and eugenol. Further bioassays confirmed contact and volatile activity for isothiocyanates and aldehydes. Soil drenching at 500 μg mL-1 reduced number of eggs (71.2-92.5%) and adult females per root system (58.3-86.1%), as well as J2 in soil (62.2-84.8%), and produced lowest gall index (1.67-2.33). Molecular docking against six M. incognita protein targets (Gst-1, AChE, Col-1, Msp-32, Vsp-2, Hsp-90) showed favorable binding energies (-2.8 to -8.3 kcal mol-1), with H-bond formation suggesting that potential multitarget interactions may contribute to nematicidal activity. This study demonstrates that isothiocyanate- and aldehyde-based POBCs are most promising candidates for developing eco-friendly nematicides and warrant further biochemical validation, formulation, dose optimization, and field evaluation. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.
Palm lethal yellowing phytoplasmas (PLYPs) are plant pathogens that cause fatal infections in various palm species in tropical regions. The only confirmed vector of these pathogens is Haplaxius crudus Van Duzee (Hemiptera: Cixiidae), a planthopper found in the Neotropics and parts of North America. The recent identification of a new PLYP in Madagascar, 'Candidatus Phytoplasma katsepyensis', was the impetus for vector studies. In 2024, an expedition was launched to document planthopper diversity on palms in Madagascar where phytoplasmas had previously been observed to identify putative vectors. Insect specimens belonging to the genus Nesomyndus were collected in relatively high abundance (n = 101) and later determined to represent three species: N. australis, N. maculatus and N. madagascarensis. Additionally, five coconut palms tested positive by qPCR for phytoplasma among the sites surveyed. Among all specimens of all three species, only nine out of 61 specimens of N. maculatus were positive for phytoplasma based on qPCR and high resolution melt curve analysis (HRMA) with four of these nine specimens having detectable levels of phytoplasma in the salivary glands by digital PCR. All positive specimens were collected from a single site. The detection of the phytoplasma in the salivary glands provides strong evidence that N. maculatus is a competent vector of a phytoplasma strain affecting coconuts in Madagascar. Future efforts will determine if the other species are also capable of acquiring the phytoplasma as well as evaluate critical details of the transmission cycle.
The commercial use of chitin synthesis inhibitor (CSI) bait formulations is common against many subterranean termite pest species, but is seldom used against termitid pests. In this study, noviflumuron durable baits were implemented under an experimental protocol in a tropical garden (Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam Botanical Garden [SSRBG]) on the island country of Mauritius to test their field efficacy against a pest population of Nasutitermes mauritianus (Wasmann) (Blattodea, Termitidae, Nasutitermitinae) (=syn. N. voelzkowi). With 46 treated nests and 26 control nests within the garden, 40 treated nests lost termite activity within 5 months, and all 46 treated nests were inactive at 8 months after treatment. In addition, 14 out of 26 control nests also ceased activity, implying that polydomous colonies were eliminated over distance even if just one of their multiple nests was treated with noviflumuron. Within 8 months, 83% of all nests in the garden were inactive. As bait quantity was limited in this experimental protocol, the garden was then left untreated for 3 years to observe the reestablishment of new colonies, through foundation, emergence of concealed colonies, and expansion of mature colonies over time, revealing a potential intraspecific competition dynamic among colonies during colony reestablishment process. Ultimately, CSI baits can be used against Nasutitermes colonies, which suggests that area-wide management of Nasutitermes is possible if colonies can be readily baited upon discovery through routine inspections, especially in areas with high termite pressure, such as the one reported in the SSRBG.
During a recent survey of oil palms in Colombia to document planthopper diversity and search for putative vectors of the causal agent of Lethal Wilt, a new species of planthopper in the genus Kubilaya (Derbidae) was discovered. Herein, the novel taxon is described along with supplemental molecular data for the barcoding region (5' half) of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene, 18S rRNA gene and D8-D10 expansion regions of the 28S rRNA gene are provided. An updated molecular phylogeny of the New World Otiocerinae and a key to species of the genus Kubilaya are provided.
Polyandry is a common reproductive behaviour in nature, and it was observed in several plant parasitic cyst nematodes. For the potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida, polyandry is assumed but has never been demonstrated and quantified. Since the potato resistance used to control this nematode, i.e., the resistance conferred by GpaV from Solanum vernei, acts by masculinizing populations, and because polyandrous mating is more frequent in male-skewed populations, the level of polyandry can be expected to decrease during the nematode adaptation process to potato resistance. Aims of this study were thus to determine whether polyandry occurs in G. pallida and to explore the polyandry evolution during the adaptation process to the potato resistance. Using G. pallida lineages obtained from experimental evolution on susceptible and resistant potato cultivars, we explored and quantified the genetic evidences of multiple paternity within cysts by genotyping juveniles using microsatellite loci. Results clearly highlighted multiple paternity in G. pallida and showed that 100% of females were polyandrous, with an average of seven fathering males. Contrary to our expectations, the frequency of polyandrous females and the female mating rate with different males, estimated from the minimum number of fathers, appeared to remain stable throughout the adaptation process to a masculinizing resistance. The level of polyandry highlighted here may represent an important parameter to consider in demo-genetic models designed to compare nematode population control strategies.
Complex host-vector-virus interfaces can impose serious health challenges. Western honeybees have experienced high colony losses globally, mainly driven by the host-shifted, virus-vectoring ectoparasitic mites Varroa destructor and Tropilaelaps mercedesae. Host populations can survive mite infestations through natural selection, offering a long-term strategy for colony health. However, host-vector-virus coevolution requires local adaptations of this triad, which is poorly understood. We propose harnessing natural selection through a global approach focused on standardized monitoring of colony survival, mite infestation levels, and control of reproductives. Studying native and adapted mite hosts, host shifts, and comparing susceptible to surviving hosts will enhance understanding of this host-vector-virus system. This strategy promotes colony health in both managed and wild host populations and provides insights into other host-vector-virus interfaces.