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Margarine is a popular high-calorie component of the Western diet and was shown to be associated with the development of metabolic syndrome. Intermittent fasting (IF) is an effective approach to improve health and prevent metabolic disorders. This study aimed to investigate the effects of margarine consumption, both ad libitum and in combination with IF regimens, using young C57BL/6J mice of both sexes. Female mice fed margarine ad libitum as a supplement to the standard diet showed significant body mass gain, reduced food intake, lower blood paraoxonase activity, and higher lipid peroxide (LOOH) levels, along with higher activities of antioxidant enzymes in the liver. Margarine-fed males showed higher food intake and had lower blood triacylglycerol levels, higher LOOH levels in adipose tissue, and lower LOOH levels in the liver than their control counterparts. When a margarine-supplemented diet was provided to mice with an IF regimen, males gained body mass faster and experienced severe metabolic changes, including elevated fasting blood glucose levels, higher total leukocyte count, triacylglycerol accumulation, and reduced glycogen levels in the liver compared to their margarine ad libitum counterparts. Females treated with margarine + IF showed a partial improvement in metabolic status and a decrease in proinflammatory markers compared to the group receiving margarine ad libitum. Hence, responses to the diets were sex-specific. Females that consumed margarine ad libitum had higher metabolic sensitivity than males. Meanwhile, IF provided some protective effects in females but worsened metabolic outcomes in males when combined with a high-fat margarine diet.
Saturated and trans fats remain a major concern due to their association with cardiovascular disease. This study developed low-saturated trans-free margarines from enzymatically modified soybean oil (EMSO) and mango kernel fat (MKF), and demonstrated cost-effective, scalable potential for industrial application. EMSO was produced through lipase-catalyzed acidolysis with C16:0. The C16:0 content was adjusted to 30 % through linear interpolation. EMSO:MKF blends that matched the melting profile of commercial soft margarine were used for margarine production. Trans-Fat was not detected in margarines. EMSO:MKF (13:4) margarine had melting profile (-43.27 °C to 37.15 °C) and β' crystal form comparable to the control. After 28 d of storage at 60 °C, total oxidation values were lower in margarines with higher MKF contents. Saturated fatty acid content in EMSO and EMSO:MKF margarines was ∼35 %, compared to the control (48.47 %). Results showed EMSO:MKF (13:4) as a viable alternative to partially hydrogenated oils in soft margarine.
Oxidative stress induced by diets rich in trans-unsaturated fatty acids is well-documented. However, their organ-specific effects and the potential of antioxidant interventions remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of margarine intake, with or without chamomile water decoction (CWD) or intermittent fasting (IF), on oxidative status in young C57BL/6J mice over 16 weeks. Margarine-fed mice had elevated lipid peroxide (LOOH) levels in the kidneys (females) and cortex (both sexes), while levels were lower in muscle and unchanged in the heart of both sexes. Activities of glutathione-dependent enzymes were higher in both sexes of margarine-fed mice. The addition of CWD to margarine provided antioxidant protection in female kidneys and heart, but caused oxidative damage in male heart. The margarine with IF demonstrated tissue-specific antioxidant benefits. Thus, margarine induces oxidative stress in a sex- and tissue-specific way. CWD and IF can counteract these effects, offering potential protective strategies against margarine-induced oxidative stress.
Incorporating oil bodies (OBs) into soybean oil and beeswax-based margarine (MG) modulates the fat crystal network structure, thereby enhancing product performance while preserving natural nutrients. The effect of adding OB to margarine on the structure and properties of soybean oil beeswax based margarine was investigated. The results showed that although the addition of OBs did not alter the crystal polymorphs (remaining as β and β' forms), it optimized the crystal network morphology, resulting in a denser needle-like structure and a stable emulsion system. This directly improved the crystallization temperature, viscoelasticity, structural strength, and hardness of the system, while significantly enhancing oxidative stability and slightly lightening the color. This study suggests that OBs can serve as a functional ingredient to regulate the crystal network structure of soybean oil-beeswax-based margarine, thereby providing a theoretical basis for their application in solid fat products.
Laminated pastries rely heavily on the unique viscoelastic and plastic properties of margarine. Traditional methods for predicting such properties, such as solid fat content (SFC), hardness, small amplitude oscillatory rheology, and subjective sensory tests (thumb test), often lack the sensitivity to detect subtle variations in margarine possessing similar characteristics. SFC primarily focuses on solid fat content, hardness measurement with cone provides a single-point assessment and identifying linear viscoelastic region cannot adequately describe the non-linear behavior which is crucial for lamination processes involving significant deformations. Additionally, subjective sensory tests are highly operator-dependent and prone to variability and inconsistency. This study introduces Large Amplitude Oscillatory Shear (LAOS) as an approach to characterize the viscoelastic properties of same composition lamination margarines. LAOS, a powerful nonlinear rheological technique, enables precise differentiation of margarines produced with minor variations in processing conditions and maturation temperatures, even when traditional methods fail to detect significant viscoelastic differences. Results demonstrate that LAOS effectively captures the subtle viscoelastic variations between margarines, correlating strongly with their baking performance. This study emphasizes the crucial role of nonlinear rheology, specifically LAOS, in accurately predicting the behavior of lamination margarines and optimizing their performance in baking applications.
High-melting-point triacylglycerols in beef tallow impair sensory attributes and application qualities when used in margarine. This study aimed to optimize beef tallow functionality via dry fractionation (0-225 min) and validate the olein in margarine formulations. Extending fractionation time to 225 min proved most effective, significantly reducing the solid fat content at 37 °C (from 17.98 % to 6.40 %) and lowering its apparent viscosity, indicating improved oral meltability and flowability. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the 1-palmitoyl-2,3-dioleoyl-glycerol-rich olein model exhibited disrupted triacylglycerol packing, reduced thermodynamic stability, and lower viscosity compared to the 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-3-stearoyl-glycerol-rich control, providing molecular evidence for enhanced flowability. Consequently, margarine prepared with 225-min fractionated olein exhibited a 45.95 % reduction in consistency index (K value) and a 49.77 % lower work of shear (improved spreadability) compared to unfractionated beef tallow. Overall, prolonged fractionation effectively optimized the physicochemical properties of beef tallow olein, providing a basis for improving margarine's application performance.
The removal of partially hydrogenated fats, as well as the substitution of saturated fats with healthier alternatives, has become increasingly common due to their well-established association with adverse health effects. As a result, the demand for alternative formulations in the food industry has driven the development of a promising emerging technology: oleogels. Oleogels are a semi-solid material made by trapping liquid oil within a three-dimensional network formed by structuring agents. Within this context, this study aimed to develop and characterize margarines prepared with oleogels formulated from extra virgin olive oil, coconut oil, starch, and beeswax at varying concentrations. The proposed oleogel-based formulations exhibited a high melting temperature range and lower enthalpy. Although lipid oxidation levels differed between the commercial and oleogel-based margarines, they remained within acceptable limits. A significant difference in color was observed, with the oleogel formulations imparting a slight greenish hue compared to the commercial margarine. In terms of microstructure, the commercial margarine presented smaller and more uniformly distributed water droplets. Oleogel-based margarines demonstrated technological feasibility. Considering consumers' growing interest in food innovation and health-conscious products, olive oil-based oleogel margarines represent a promising alternative, particularly due to the nutritional benefits associated with olive oil.
This study prepared palm stearin/linseed oil-based margarines (PST/LO-BMs) and palm stearin/linseed oil oleogel-based margarines (PST/LO-OBM) by incorporating varying proportions (20-60% oil phase) of linseed oil (LO) and LO-based oleogel, respectively. By comparing PST/LO-OBMs and PST/LO-BMs, it was found that the introduction of phytosterol-γ-oryzanol (PO) complexes and glycerol monostearate (GMS) to PST/LO-OBM induced three distinct crystalline morphologies: needle-like crystals, spherical crystals, and cluster-type crystals. These crystal assemblies synergistically constructed a robust three-dimensional network, effectively entrapping both aqueous droplets and liquid oil fractions while substantially reinforcing the structural integrity of PST/LO-OBM. Notably, the incorporated gelators modified the crystallization behavior, where GMS likely served as a nucleating site promoting triglyceride crystallization. This structural modulation yielded favorable β'-form crystal polymorphism, which is critically associated with enhanced textural properties. Comparative analysis with commercial margarine revealed that the PST45/LO40-OBM formulation exhibited comparable rheological performance, crystalline type, and thermal properties, while demonstrating superior nutritional characteristics, containing elevated levels of α-linolenic acid (23.54%), phytosterol (1410 mg/100 g), and γ-oryzanol (2110 mg/100 g). These findings provide fundamental insights for margarine alternatives with nutritional attributes.
This study aimed to microencapsulate carotenoids extracted from peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) peels for potential application as natural dyes in the food industry, addressing the increasing demand for functional foods and natural alternatives. Carotenoid extraction was carried out through enzymatic treatment with pectinase (Aspergillus niger), and the extracted compounds were subsequently microencapsulated by spray drying using gum arabic and maltodextrin as carrier materials. The physicochemical analyses showed that the moisture content, solubility, spherical morphology and microparticles size (9.17 µm for GA 1:1, 8.30 µm for GA 1:3, and 13.92 µm for MD-GA 1:1) were influenced by the concentration of the encapsulating agents. The combination of gum arabic and maltodextrin (MD-GA 1:1) exhibited the highest encapsulation efficiency (72.50%), enhanced thermal stability and superior carotenoid retention (1701.74 µg g-1), ensuring good antioxidant activity. Stability was optimized under refrigerated conditions (4 ± 2 °C) and in the absence of light, which effectively minimized the oxidative degradation of carotenoids in the microparticles. When incorporated into margarine, the microparticles conferred a stable yellow coloration, exhibiting only a slight variation in brightness over 30 days, thereby demonstrating their viability for application in food products. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-025-06283-2.
With growing health awareness, low-saturated fat margarine is increasingly favored by consumers. Compared with the traditional modification process, enzymatic interesterification is an ideal means of modifying fats and oils due to its advantages of high selectivity, mild reaction conditions, and no production of trans fatty acids. In this study, five base oils were prepared by enzymatic interesterification of cottonseed oil (CSO) and palm stearin (PS). The enzymatic interesterification blended-based margarine (IB-M) was obtained by mixing base oil, emulsifier, and water. By observing the morphology and comparing the solid fat content, fatty acid and triglyceride compositions, 7:3 (CSO:PS) was finally selected for the preparation of IB-M, which had 11.56 ± 0.56% solid fat content at 20°C, 36.71 ± 0.02% fatty acid, and 1.15 ± 0.04% S3-type triglyceride. The analysis showed that the β' of IB-M was 59.49 ± 1.1%, which was significantly higher than that of the commercially available margarine (CM) (50.39 ± 0.9% and 50.04 ± 1.4%, p < 0.05). The analysis of the melting and crystallization properties indicates broadened peaks, reduced peak areas, and the presence of finer crystalline particles, suggesting improved melting behavior and enhanced plasticity. The rheological properties also indicated that the viscoelasticity of IB-M was less, and a smoother mouthfeel could be experienced in the mouth. Analysis of the in vitro simulated digestion process showed that IB-M showed a similar trend of change as CM, but had a higher content of released FFA (64.99 ± 0.9%), which made it easier for the human body to digest and absorb. Therefore, IB-M enhances CSO's value and supports nutritious functional products.
Margarine's susceptibility to oxidative deterioration was addressed by microencapsulating supercritical CO₂-extracted green coffee antioxidants (GCSE) in tragacanth-chitosan (TG-CS) hydrogels. Optimized extraction (70 °C, 30 MPa, 20 % ethanol) yielded GCSE with high phenolic content (36.35 mg GAE/g dw) and antioxidant activity (89.76 % DPPH, 91.79 % ABTS inhibition). Encapsulation at a 1:3 TG-CS ratio achieved 85.28 % efficiency, retaining 149.54 mg GAE/100 g phenolics. Characterization (SEM, FTIR, XRD) confirmed micro-scale particles (0.928 μm) with moderate stability (Zeta potential: -17.66 mV) and sustained release (67.33 % over 6 h). In margarine, encapsulated GCSE (T2) maintained oxidative stability (peroxide: 2.02 meq/kg; p-anisidine: 4.88 mMol/kg; acid value: 1.81 mg NaOH/g), comparable to synthetic TBHQ (T3), while the control (T4) deteriorated rapidly. T2 retained 59.48 % DPPH activity (vs. 51.06 % for free GCSE, T1) and matched T3's sensory quality (aroma, texture, color; p > 0.05). TG-CS microencapsulation offers a dual-functional, clean-label solution for lipid-based foods, enhancing shelf life without compromising natural efficacy.
The aim of this work was to develop a low-glycemic-index, gluten-free biscuit by completely replacing wheat flour with flours from three local food plants, namely dana (Dioscorea bulbifera), tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus), and a fatty composition consisting of a 50/50 blend of avocado (Persea americana) and margarine. Using an extreme summit mixture design, nine formulation trials (M1 to M9) were conducted on which the nutritional, functional, and antinutritional properties were assessed. The same design was used to define the optimal formulation according to nutritional composition and sensory appeal. This optimal formulation was characterized as previously described and its glycemic load was also determined using standardized protocols. These analyses showed that the nine mixtures (M1 to M9) obtained had fiber, starch, and reducing sugar content ranging from 10.4% to 14.3%, 13.32% to 29.49%, and 1.26% to 2.98%, respectively. Analysis of the optimal biscuit with a ratio of 58.40/25/16.6 for tiger nut, dana, and fat showed that the fiber content and energy value were 18.95 g/100 g and 449.86 kcal/100 g, respectively. The oil to water absorption capacity ratio was 1.13 ± 0.37 with a pH of 6.49 ± 0.01. The glycemic index of the biscuit was 53.81 ± 5.48 with a glycemic load of 3.4 ± 0.56. In conclusion, the formulated biscuit exhibits favorable nutritional characteristics and a low glycemic index making it a promising future alternative as a snack for people at risk of diabetes.
A healthier margarine fat with zero-trans and low saturated fatty acids was synthesized biocatalytically using lipase from Pichia pastoris, immobilized on macroporous epoxy resin, to catalyze the interesterification of high oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSO) and palm stearin (PS) in a solvent-free system. Among five macroporous resin carriers, the Pichia pastoris lipase immobilized on ES-108 epoxy resin (ES-PPL) exhibited the highest biocatalytic efficiency. Under solvent-free conditions, a 99.67 % degree of interesterification was achieved using 16 % enzyme dosage at 70 °C for 60 min with an equal mass ratio of HOSO to PS. Furthermore, ES-PPL retained high activity over six consecutive cycles, demonstrating operational stability comparable to Lipozyme TL IM. The interesterified fats displayed improved physical properties, including desirable β'-type crystal form and a suitable solid fat content profile with a slip melting point of 33.5 °C, demonstrating great potential for producing zero-trans and low saturated margarine.
Margarine, fat spread, and shortening made with partially hydrogenated fats and oils as their raw materials have been known as foods containing trans fatty acids. Due to concerns about the health effects of trans fatty acids, the content of trans fatty acids in these products has now been reduced to around 1 g/100 g (median value) through the use of alternative oils and fats, which is about the same level as that for vegetable oil used as main raw material. In this review, we summarized the trends in trans fatty acid content in products manufactured in Japan from 1969 to 2022.
In this study, peptide (WG-E40) derived from hydrolyzed walnut glutenin (WG) and rhamnolipid (Rha) were combined to develop peptide-based emulsion gel (PEG) with β-sitosterol as gelling agent. Among the hydrolysis products of WG at different hydrolysis times (2, 20, and 40 min), WG-E40 exhibited the best gelling performance. The effects of WG-E40 and Rha on PEG properties were evaluated through particle size analysis, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, rheology, microstructure, and oil retention capacity (OHC). PEG formulated with WG-E40 and Rha showed porous structure, solid gel viscoelasticity and OHC of 71.27 %. Rha has improved the emulsifying ability of WG-E40 and enhanced its stability. In vitro digestion experiments showed that these PEGs encapsulated curcumin at a rate of 91.75 %, slowing down its release in simulated gastrointestinal fluid. Additionally, GC-MS analysis revealed that sponge cakes prepared with PEG exhibited favorable flavor profiles, suggesting their potential as a healthier alternative to margarine.
The study investigated the impact of protein percentage (0.5 %-3.5 %), in combination with xanthan (0.05 %-0.5 %) at different pH levels (3-9) on foam and respected cryogel properties using Response Surface Methodology. The foam template produced by 1.10 % protein, 0.2 % xanthan, and pH of 7.7 for soy protein isolate while for whey protein isolate, the foam contained 2.75 % protein, 0.2 % xanthan at pH of 7.6. The optimized cryogel was filled by canola oil to fabricate oleogel and compared to commercial margarine. The analysis revealed that the oleogel samples contained a significantly lower proportion of saturated fatty acids (13.6 %) compared to margarine (48.25 %). Thermal behavior indicated that oleogel lacked a distinct melting point, unlike margarine which melted at approximately 45 °C. The oleogel displayed a strong gel structure with minimal susceptibility to deformation rate, whereas the gel structure of margarine was weak and more prone to deformation rate. The oleogels demonstrated a recovery of approximately 13 % after being subjected to a shear rate of 60 % of the initial value, whereas this value was 50 % for margarine. It can be concluded that the foam-template oleogel exhibited the potential to serve as a viable alternative to margarine, offering comparable properties and performance.
Oleogels have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional solid fats by structuring liquid oils without increasing trans or saturated fat levels. This study therefore aimed to develop rice bran oil (RBO)-based oleogels using beeswax (BW), carnauba wax (CW), and their combinations, and to compare their physicochemical properties with commercial margarine. Thirteen formulations with varying wax concentrations were prepared and analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry, microscopy, rheology, texture profile analysis, oil binding capacity, slip melting point, peroxide value, color analysis, and fatty acid profiling. Our results demonstrated that the thermal behavior of the oleogels is dependent on the type and concentration of the wax, with CW oleogels exhibiting higher crystallization and melting temperatures than BW, while hybrid systems displayed intermediate and synergistic properties. Distinct crystal morphologies were observed, with BW forming needle-like and CW forming spherulitic structures, while the hybrids created interconnected networks. All samples exhibited shear-thinning and gel-like behavior, with greater viscosity and gel strength observed at increasing wax concentrations. The hybrid oleogels achieved hardness comparable to higher CW levels and approached margarine texture, while maintaining high oil binding capacity (>94%). The RBO oleogels contained higher unsaturated fatty acids but showed lower oxidative stability than margarine. Overall, BW-CW hybrid oleogels demonstrated strong potential as healthier, solid fat alternatives with improved structural and thermal characteristics.
Vitamin D deficiency remains a widespread public health issue in Europe, despite the availability of sunlight, dietary sources, supplements, and food fortification. National fortification strategies differ substantially in their regulatory approaches, food vehicles, and fortification levels, influencing the population's vitamin D intake and status. The primary objective of this study was to map vitamin D food fortification policies across European Union (EU) Member States, European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries, and the United Kingdom (UK), focusing on regulatory frameworks, eligible food categories, and implementation models. A structured review of national legislation and official guidance on vitamin D food fortification was conducted between December 2025 and March 2026 across EU Member States (n = 27), EFTA countries (n = 4), and the UK. For EU Member States, the framework established by Regulation (EC) No 1925/2006 was examined alongside national implementation measures. For EFTA countries and the UK, corresponding national legislation and official regulatory guidance were reviewed. Data were extracted on fortification policy status, eligible food categories, legal basis, and fortification levels. Targeted searches of PubMed and Scopus were performed to identify modeling studies and policy analyses supporting the interpretation of the findings. Fortification policies show marked heterogeneity. Mandatory fortification is limited to a few countries and specific foods: Finland (homogenized skim milk), Sweden (low-fat milk, fermented dairy, plant-based alternatives, and fat spreads), Belgium (margarine and selected fats), and Poland (margarine and fat spreads). In most other European countries, vitamin D fortification is voluntary under EU legislation or equivalent national legislation, depending on market uptake. Food vehicles vary regionally, with Northern Europe extending fortification beyond fats to include fluid milk and plant-based drinks, whereas other regions mainly fortify margarines, cereals, dairy products, and plant-based beverages. Fortification levels also differ, with some countries specifying maximal or exact levels, while others lack national standards. Data on fortified foods are limited in several Central and Southern European countries. Modeling indicates that multi-vehicle fortification is more effective than single-vehicle approaches, safely increasing population intakes while reducing deficiency prevalence. Vitamin D fortification policies across Europe are highly heterogeneous. Most countries rely on voluntary approaches, which provide limited coverage. Strengthening policy through mandatory and well-coordinated multi-vehicle strategies, informed by modeling and population-based studies, can improve vitamin D intake, reduce deficiency prevalence, and enhance health equity.
This review aims to compare the impact of unprocessed animal foods with ultra-processed plant-based alternatives, particularly plant-based milks, plant-based meat analogs, and margarine, on cardiometabolic risk factors, chronic diseases, and mortality. The ultra-processed food category is highly heterogeneous, encompassing products with varying ingredients and nutrient profiles. Plant-based milks, plant-based meat analogs, and margarine, typically classified as ultra-processed foods, differ markedly from their unprocessed animal-based counterparts: they do not contain cholesterol or heme iron, have lower concentrations of saturated fat, sulfur, and branched-chain amino acids, and provide dietary fiber, which is absent in animal-based foods. Replacing dairy milk with soymilk have been shown to reduce total cholesterol (TC), LDL cholesterol (LDL-C), and C-reactive protein (CRP), and is associated with a lower risk of breast cancer. Compared to unprocessed animal-based products, plant-based meat analogs are associated with reductions in TC, LDL-C, body weight, plasma ammonia, and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO). Substituting butter with soft margarine reduces TC and LDL-C, and is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular events and mortality. While ultra-processed plant-based foods are less healthy than whole plant foods, they may offer better cardiometabolic outcomes than unprocessed animal-based products. As transitional tools, products such as plant-based milks, meat analogs, and margarine may facilitate dietary shifts. Public health guidance should reflect these nuances to support realistic, health-promoting transitions.
Diet contains components that may exert broad immunoregulatory properties, including the promotion of tolerance. The timing of food introduction may influence the development of allergies. The aim of this study was to relate the timing of food introduction with doctor's diagnosed allergies (food allergy, atopic eczema, and allergic asthma) at six years of age in a cohort of Swedish infants. At six years of age, 430 children from the Swedish NICE birth cohort were assessed for food allergies, atopic eczema, and allergic asthma by a pediatric allergologist. Timing of introduction of 18 predefined foods (potatoes and roots, fruits and/or fruit juice, berries, nuts and/or almonds, peanuts and/or peanut oil, bread and/or biscuits, butter, margarine, vegetable oils, cow's milk, ice cream, sour milk ("fil"), yoghurt, meat, fish, eggs, porridge, and gruel) was collected monthly via parent-completed web-based questionnaires. Associations were examined using logistic regression adjusted for allergic heredity. During the first year of life, 27% of the children received peanuts and/or peanut oil and 32% nuts and/or almonds. Earlier meat introduction was associated with 24% lower odds of food allergy per month earlier introduced [adjusted OR (95% CI): 0.76 (0.60-0.99), p = 0.028]. A similar tendency was observed for eggs, although not surviving adjustment for allergic heredity. Children with food allergies had been introduced to margarine earlier than non-allergic children [9.0 (5.0-12.0) vs. 12.0 (9.0-12.0) months, p = 0.021], although this finding likely reflects reverse causation. Our results suggest that earlier introduction of meat may be associated with a lower risk of food allergies later in childhood, although this finding must be interpreted with caution as causality cannot be proven. Timing of food introduction did not appear to be associated with atopic eczema or allergic asthma. Furthermore, our results indicate that recommendations for introduction of potentially allergenic foods during the first year of life were not effectively implemented. ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05809479, 12 April 2023, Retrospectively registered.