Streptomyces and insects engage in complex interactions shaped by millions of years of evolution. While many beneficial relationships are well recognized, it remains unknown whether Streptomyces produce virulence factors targeting insects specifically. Here, through bioinformatic analysis, we identified diphtheria toxin (DT) homologues, which we named Streptomyces antiquus insecticidal proteins (SAIP), within a monophyletic lineage of Streptomyces that emerged more than 100 million years ago. SAIP is cytotoxic to insect cells and lethal to Drosophila melanogaster, suppressing neuronal activity and immune responses in vivo. Structural and functional studies validated that SAIP is homologous to DT and acts by ADP ribosylation of eukaryotic elongation factor 2. CRISPR-Cas9 screening identified the insect protein Flower as the SAIP receptor across a range of insects. Toxigenic Streptomyces can consume dead insects and produce bioactive secondary metabolites while growing on insect carcasses. These findings establish an insecticidal toxin in Streptomyces and demonstrate that Streptomyces have evolved highly specific virulence factors against insects.
As eusocial insects enter the post-genomic era, the availability of reference genomes and genomic datasets have facilitated Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS) for traits measured on whole colonies. Several GWAS have been completed for traits like foraging and colony nesting behavior. However, no studies have addressed the specific challenges of applying GWAS to eusocial species. Eusocial species, such as honey bees, present several hurdles for traditional GWAS designs: they have high recombination rates, their social traits are generally polygenic, and the existence of multiple castes introduces additional layers of complexity in identifying genotype-phenotype associations. Moreover, many eusocial species are haplodiploid and polyandrous. To address these challenges, we used the honey bee (Apis mellifera) as a model to simulate GWAS scenarios for honey yield. We explored the influence of factors such as the number of quantitative trait loci (QTL), heritability level, number of SNP markers covering the genome, and sample size on QTL discovery. We also examined the impact of genotyping queens versus workers. Our results suggest that a p-value threshold of 1 × 10- 6 and sample sizes of at least 1,000 are effective for identifying QTL for key traits. Including both queen and worker genotypes improved QTL discovery power, emphasizing the need to optimize GWAS methods for eusocial species. Our results should improve future GWAS in honey bees and highlights the need for additional simulations and standard-setting work in other eusocial species.
Climate change, land-use change, and intensified agricultural practices are reshaping agroecosystems, yet pest outbreak forecasts remain weak because links between individual-level mechanisms and spatiotemporal population dynamics are not well synthesized. We synthesize a framework in which global changes act through four proximate drivers: climate, host quantity/quality, top-down control, and management mortality, to reweight seven core processes i.e. development, reproduction, survival, diapause, aestivation, migration, and dispersal, thereby shaping within-season dynamics and cross-season carryover. A shared response architecture, signal sensing, neuroendocrine integration, and downstream physiological/molecular reprogramming, explains why warming typically accelerates development, shifts phenology, and increases voltinism, whereas extremes reduce survival and reproduction and intensify selection for resistance. We integrate physiological mechanisms to regulate spring-founding populations and distribution dynamics, highlighting destabilized diapause timing, heat-drought-driven aestivation, and wind-rain-mediated migratory redistribution. We identified key gaps that need to be resolved to parameterize cross-scale models and guide climate-smart pest management.
Rapidly expanding insect farming industries worldwide are raising concerns about introducing contaminants into food chains. One of the dominant species in this new bioindustry, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), offers diverse benefits ranging from protein production to waste management, biofuel, and pharmaceutical applications. Recent studies have highlighted the ability of insects to accumulate metals; however, knowledge of their ability to eliminate contaminants is needed. Similarly, information regarding the accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is lacking. This study aimed to understand how H. illucens larvae accumulate and eliminate metals and PAHs from contaminated substrates. We performed two-phase bioaccumulation experiments followed by toxicokinetic modelling to estimate uptake and elimination rate constants and half-lives in H. illucens. During the uptake phase, insects were exposed for five days to contaminated substrates at EU maximum feed concentrations: 2 mg kg-1 for As and Cd, 10 mg kg-1 for Pb, and 12.5 μg kg-1 for each of four PAHs (benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, chrysene). In the second phase, insects were exposed to non-contaminated substrates for five days to evaluate elimination. Results showed metal accumulation with kinetic bioaccumulation factors of 4.26, 1.16, and 1.31 for Cd, As, and Pb, respectively. A one-day depuration reduced As and Pb below regulatory thresholds; Cd required three days. Minimal to no accumulation was observed for B[a]P and B[b]F, with higher uptake for B[a]A. PAH half-lives were under one day. These findings, from controlled experiments with limited contaminants, support incorporating a depuration phase for risk mitigation in H. illucens waste-to-protein systems.
Phytoplasmas are cell wall-less bacteria that are transmitted by phloem-feeding insects. In Canada, insect vectors of this pathogen are leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), and they can contribute to significant economic losses. As climate change alters the composition and movement of insect communities, migratory species such as the potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae, Harris 1841), one of the most abundant leafhoppers in Québec affecting berries, may play an emerging role in phytoplasma transmission. Although E. fabae is not currently confirmed to act as a vector, its frequent presence and abundance in fields, along with its potential to acquire phytoplasmas, deserve further investigation. In this study, we tested DNA from E. fabae collected in strawberry fields for the presence of 'Candidatus Phytoplasma' using a highly validated nested PCR assay. The amplicon from positive insects were cloned and 46 of those clones were sequenced to identify phytoplasma groups and subgroups. Our findings confirmed the presence of multiple Aster Yellows (16SrI-related) subgroups in E. fabae, based on phylogenetic analysis, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) profiling, and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) profiles. However, although phytoplasma was detected in a new generation of leafhoppers reared under controlled conditions in disease-free alfalfa plants, the ability of E. fabae to transmit the pathogen remains unknown. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of monitoring common pests such as E. fabae as early indicators of phytoplasma diversity in Eastern Canadian agricultural systems.
Carboxyl/cholinesterases (CCEs) are hydrolases converting carboxylic esters into acids and alcohols. Although CCE genes are systematically identified in 14 Hemipteran insects, the classification of CCEs is not performed in any Coccoidea insects. Here 77 CCE genes were categorized in a polyphagous Coccoidea herbivore, Phenacoccus solenopsis. Most CCEs had catalytic triad Ser-Asp/Glu-His, where serine formed a conserved sequence of GXSXG (X, any amino acid residue). Phylogenetic analysis and multiple sequence alignment revealed that 77 CCE genes fell into dietary/xenobiotic detoxification, hormone/pheromone processing and neuro/developmental function classes, including 32 α-esterases (AEs), 22 β-esterases (BEs), 9 juvenile hormone esterases (JHEs), 2 acetylcholinesterases (ACEs), 2 glutactins, 8 neuroligins and 1 glioactin. Genomic distribution and collinearity analysis, along with phylogenetic analysis, showed that a total of 12 tandem duplication events within the CCE gene family occurred in whole genome. Intron-exon structure analysis discovered there was an intronless PsCCE gene. Long PsCCEs had more exon and intron numbers. Moreover, several tandemly duplicated PsCCEs possessed identical or similar exon numbers. All CCEs were actively transcribed throughout the development and 73 CCEs were expressed when the larvae feeding on three host plants estimated by RPKM values. PsAE7, PsAE9 and PsJHE9 were only expressed in males. Therefore, a framework of information on CCE genes was established in P. solenopsis. The results facilitate exploring the resistant modes to environmental toxins.
Understanding flight evolution requires quantifiable metrics. The complex flight dynamics and the vast morphological space insects have explored make it extremely challenging to define and understand what combinations of traits lead to these successful flyers. In this work, we constructed a mathematically tractable free-flight model, including the nonlinear wing-body coupling, to elucidate the effect of morphology on flight stability. Using this model to simulate almost a million different forms, we identified a region of passively stable upward flight, in addition to generic unstable flight. Analyzing the stability boundary in the 5D morphological and kinematic space, we found a set of explicit criteria that approximate the stability transitions, and expressed them in terms of two physically interpretable constraints. These two stability criteria provide a succinct metric for stability, quantifying the distance of an insect from the stable region directly from morphology, thus organizing a complex flight trait in a reduced and physically interpretable space. As such, they provide a framework for designing stable flapping-wing robots and for quantification of a critical phenotypic flight trait on top of the established phylogenetic relationships among insects.
Jack Bean Urease (JBU) is a urease isoform from the plant Canavalia ensiformis with recognized insecticidal properties, although its full entomotoxic potential remains poorly understood. In this study, we used Rhodnius prolixus, a vector of Chagas disease, as a model to investigate the effects of JBU on reproduction. Injection of a sublethal dose in vitellogenic females significantly reduced oviposition and delayed ovarian development, with ovarioles displaying degenerating follicles. Microscopy analyses revealed signs of apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis in the ovarian tissue of JBU-treated insects. The fat body-the main sites of vitellogenin and lipophorin synthesis-exhibited necrotic features, enlarged adiposomes, and increased triacylglycerol content. qPCR analysis showed increased transcript levels of the lipid metabolism-related genes acetyl-CoA carboxylase, perilipin, and Brummer lipase in JBU-treated females. ELISA assays indicated that JBU induced changes in the amounts of vitellogenin and lipophorin in the fat body and the ovary, as well as in their levels in the hemolymph. JBU treatment impaired vitellogenin uptake and lipophorin-mediated lipid transfer to the oocytes while promoting lipid accumulation in the fat body. An in vivo approach using fluorescently labeled JBU showed its presence in the fat body and ovarian tissues, with no detectable proteolytic processing of JBU in the hemolymph under the conditions tested. Altogether, these findings indicate that JBU-induced reproductive impairment is, at least in part, mediated by disruptions in lipid metabolism along the fat body-ovary axis. These results contribute to understanding the entomotoxic effects of JBU and highlight its potential impact on insect population dynamics.
Cis-regulatory elements (CREs) drive tissue- and cell-specific gene expression and are essential for safe, sustainable genetic control strategies in pest and vector insects, including the engineering of gene drives in the primary human-malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Yet CREs remain poorly defined in mosquitoes due to limited computational tools and practical methods for identification and validation. We present a systematic in silico approach for CRE discovery, correlating targeted DNA-motif searches with gene expression, followed by frequency and distribution analysis within putative promoter regions. Applied to the A. gambiae germline, this approach identified hundreds of putative CREs significantly correlated with germline expression in one or both sexes, often linked to distinct sperm developmental stages and chromosomal locations, suggesting roles in broader regulatory mechanisms such as dosage compensation and meiotic silencing. When mapped onto pre-characterised germline promoters, CRE distribution aligned with regions associated with experimental expression patterns. Finally, we validated a top-ranked testis-enriched CRE using an in vivo dual-reporter assay, showing that mutation of conserved nucleotides drastically altered male germline expression. To the best of our knowledge this work provides the first nucleotide-resolution regulatory genome annotation of the A. gambiae germline, offering a transferable framework to aid promoter design for genetic control strategies against malaria mosquitoes and other insect pests.
Tuta absoluta is a globally destructive invasive Solanaceae pest with widespread resistance to conventional insecticides, highlighting the urgent need for eco-friendly and sustainable control strategies. Catalase (CAT) is a key antioxidant enzyme that primarily scavenges intracellular hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to maintain redox homeostasis. CATs have also been detected in the oral secretions (OSs) of some herbivorous insects, suggesting an additional extracellular role in manipulating plant defense during feeding making CATs innovative targets for pest management. Here, we systematically identified CATs in Tuta absoluta and evaluated their functions and suitability as RNA interference (RNAi) targets. Nine CATs were identified, with TaCAT1-TaCAT3 clustered phylogenetically with known insect OS-associated CATs. These genes showed high expression in larval heads and guts, induced by tomato feeding, indicating roles at the insect-plant interface. Silencing these CATs significantly impaired larval performance: individual double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) caused 69% mortality, while combined targeting (dsCAT-mix) achieved 80% mortality, accompanied by reduced pupation and smaller pupae. Functionally, CAT silencing induced tomato leaves H2O2 accumulation, and activated jasmonic acid pathway while suppressing salicylic acid signaling. These results demonstrate that CATs facilitate larval feeding by suppressing plant oxidative and hormonal defenses. Importantly, dsCAT treatments had no negative effects on predator Nesidiocoris tenuis, underscoring biosafety and specificity. These findings uncover a previously underappreciated role of CATs as putative OS effectors in a lepidopteran pest, validating them as effective, selective, and eco-friendly RNAi targets. This work provides mechanistic insight into insect-plant interactions and a practical foundation for sustainable RNAi-based strategies against Tuta absoluta. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.
Crickets are widely consumed edible insects with high nutritional value, requiring reliable analytical methods for elemental characterization. Their complex matrix can cause matrix effects, making suitable reference materials essential for quality control. Because certified cricket reference materials are scarce, particularly in Brazil, this study aimed to prepare and characterize a national reference material candidate using black cricket (Gryllus assimilis). The production process was adapted to the matrix and included grinding, lyophilization, and packaging, yielding a batch of 25 bottles. The influence of particle size and between-bottle homogeneity was evaluated. Homogeneity was assessed by ANOVA, supported by Levene and Shapiro-Wilk tests, using five randomly selected bottles and three subsamples of 0.250 g per bottle. Elemental characterization was performed by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence. Expanded uncertainties were estimated with a coverage factor of k = 2 at approximately 95% confidence. Results showed satisfactory between-bottle homogeneity (p-value > 0.05) and indicated that particle sizes below 500 µm did not significantly affect concentrations. The candidate presented average mass fractions ± expanded uncertainty of Ca (1531.0 ± 176.5 mg kg⁻1), Cl (5559.4 ± 1381.2 mg kg⁻1), Cu (22.9 ± 1.7 mg kg⁻1), Mg (1083.1 ± 295.8 mg kg⁻1), P (10 397.0 ± 1084.6 mg kg⁻1), and S (7608.1 ± 398.0 mg kg⁻1). Coefficients of variation were below 11%, and expanded uncertainties remained under 30%. These results demonstrate adequate precision, reproducibility, and matrix suitability of the proposed material. The study supports continued evaluation of intra-bottle homogeneity, stability, and certification to enable its availability for laboratories performing elemental analysis of cricket-based foods, strengthening analytical reliability and food safety assessment in emerging insect protein chains worldwide. This contribution addresses national needs and supports sustainable nutrition research efforts.
Time-related behaviors are controlled by the output from clock neurons with aminergic neurons. In this review, I summarize the circadian clock system and time-related behaviors with potential effects due to monoamines in social insects. In social bees, the circadian clock system is built into some behaviors, including the navigation system based on the sun compass, time-related mating flights, and time-place learning. The sun compass incorporates the circadian changes in sky polarization patterns and solar azimuth, allowing bees to obtain a stable directional signal throughout the day. Time-related mating flights involve synchronizing sexual activity between males and gynes at a time of day. Time-place learning requires time memory based on the internal clock and associating the site of a food source with the time of day when flowers frequently secrete nectar. The neural circuits involved in these behaviors may interact with the clock and aminergic neurons in particular brain areas.
Bacillus cereus is responsible for a wide range of intestinal and extraintestinal infections in humans. Its pathogenicity relies on multiple factors, including extracellular toxins, direct interaction with host tissues, and adaptive mechanisms that promote host colonization. B. cereus group bacteria are also insect pathogens (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis), suggesting that certain virulence mechanisms may be conserved between mammals and insects. In this study, we used Galleria mellonella as an infection model to assess the pathogenicity of two B. cereus strains (i.e., T1 and B10502), which were previously isolated from food poisoning outbreaks and that differ in their virulence toward human enterocyte cell cultures. We combined genomic analysis with larval infection assays to examine survival, bacterial persistence, immune activation, and spore formation. Whole-genome phylogenetic analysis revealed that the two strains belong to distinct branches of the B. cereus sensu lato species. Both strains induced dose-dependent mortality following oral gavage, with strain T1 showing a better persistence than strain B10502 in both living and dead larvae, with heat-resistant spores detectable up to 144 h post-infection, unlike strain B10502. Infection with strain B10502 elicited higher phenoloxidase activity and greater melanization than with strain T1. Both strains similarly reduced hemocyte viability. Genomic comparisons revealed that both strains share a core set of virulence factors, including the non-hemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe) complex, various hemolysins, and phospholipases, while exhibiting significant differences in genes, such as hblABCD complex, mpbE, clpC, clpP, and ilsA. These findings demonstrate that G. mellonella is a useful infection model to discriminate B. cereus strains with different virulence biological activities on larval colonization and innate immune markers, providing new insights into the mechanisms underlying the pathogenicity of foodborne B. cereus strains.
The reproductive success of insects depends on the coordinated function of oviposition-associated muscles. However, the molecular regulators of these muscles, particularly extracellular matrix (ECM) components, remain poorly understood. In this study, we identified a gene encoding the ECM glycoprotein SPARC through transcriptomic analysis of key oviposition muscles in Locusta migratoria. Tissue-specific expression analysis showed that LmSPARC was highly expressed in these oviposition-associated muscles of adult females. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of LmSPARC in fifth-instar nymphs resulted in complete oviposition failure in adults, characterized by retained mature oocytes and marked abdominal distension. Although abdominal extension and ovipositor digging behaviors were unaffected, the mechanical strength (maximum breaking force) of the lateral oviduct was severely reduced following LmSPARC knockdown. Histological analysis further revealed significant thinning and disorganization of the circular muscle layer of oviduct. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that LmSPARC is essential for maintaining the structural integrity and tensile properties of oviduct muscles, thereby ensuring successful egg expulsion. This study reveals a novel, muscle-related role of SPARC in insect reproduction and provides a potential target for RNAi-based locust management strategies.
Pond fertilization is a crucial factor in enhancing the productivity of inland aquatic resources. Organic fertilizers, such as vermicompost and biocompost derived from water hyacinth, promote the growth of algae and insects, which serve as essential food sources for fish. This study investigated the effects of water hyacinth vermicompost as a fertilization strategy in aquaculture, specifically examining its impact on fish growth compared to traditional fertilizers, such as triple superphosphate (TSP) and a combined fertilizer of TSP and urea. Water hyacinth, an invasive aquatic plant, was processed through vermicomposting to produce a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer. Over three months, from mid-November 2021 to mid-February 2022, various pond fertilization techniques and physicochemical parameters were examined in concrete ponds at the Batu Fish and Other Aquatic Life Research Center. Twelve concrete partitioned fish ponds, each measuring 6 m², were constructed and stocked with 18 Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings each, weighing approximately 7 g, randomly sourced from Batu Fish and Other Aquatic Life Research Center. This pond was equally divided into four treatments with three replicates (4T x 3R). The growth performance of Oreochromis niloticus was measured every 15 days for 90 days in water-filled ponds treated with mixed fertilizer (a 1:1 ratio of triple superphosphate and urea), triple superphosphate (TSP) alone, vermicompost (VC) as a direct application fertilizer, and control ponds. ANOVA was employed to analyze the data, which included growth parameters such as weight gain and feed conversion ratio, and the overall fish health was inspected and monitored throughout the study. Results indicated that ponds treated with water hyacinth vermicompost achieved significantly higher fish growth rates compared to those receiving TSP, TSP combined with urea, and the control group at p < 0.05. Specifically, the VC-treated pond recorded a final fish weight of 69.00±0.78964 g, followed by mixed fertilizer (66.1917±0.57309 g), TSP (63.144±0.51088 g), and the control ponds (51.00±0.82446 g). In the VC-treated pond, there was a high abundance of zooplankton, and high plankton production was observed in all treatments except in the control ponds. Water quality assessments showed that the use of vermicompost significantly improved the overall health of the pond. For example, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels increased, while ammonium (NH₄⁺) levels decreased, as ammonia could be absorbed by the available phytoplankton. The study recorded dissolved oxygen (DO) levels ranging from 8.06 ± 1.09 mg/l in the control group to 8.7583 ± 0.7 mg/l in the VC group. Consequently, the application of vermicompost released nutrients that fostered plankton production, which supported fish growth. Overall, Water hyacinth vermicompost is a viable, eco-friendly alternative to inorganic fertilizer for enhancing the productivity of semi-intensive Nile tilapia ponds.
Monitoring of the presence of a queen bee in hives is essential for the sustainability of healthy honey bee colonies. However, most beekeepers have relied on manual and visual inspections to assess the queen presence in a hive, which is not suitable for early diagnosis of queen loss. In this study, a functional nanovesicle-embedded hydrogel biosensor platform is developed for the real-time and direct monitoring of 9-oxo-2-decenoic acid (9-ODA), a main component of the queen mandibular pheromone, in both liquid- and gas-phase environments. Here, a black phosphorus-based field-effect transistor (BP-FET) was hybridized with nanovesicles containing Apis mellifera olfactory receptor 11 (AmOr11) recognizing 9-ODA to build a highly sensitive sensing platform. Then, a polyacrylamide hydrogel layer was coated on the channel region of the BP-FET, which could inhibit the nonspecific adsorption of macromolecules and provide excellent physiological environments to maintain the functional activities of receptors. Our nanovesicle-embedded hydrogel biosensor could be utilized for the real-time detection of 9-ODA down to 1 aM and 8.16 parts per trillion (ppt) in aqueous and gaseous environments, respectively. Moreover, our sensor could discriminate 9-ODA from other pheromone-related odorants in both liquid- and gas-phase environments with high selectivity. Furthermore, it could detect 9-ODA even in complicated environments, such as propolis and Apimil samples. Notably, our platform allowed us to sensitively monitor 9-ODA secreted by a live queen bee in real time. In this respect, our nanovesicle-embedded hydrogel biosensor could provide a promising platform for on-site assessment of queen presence and versatile practical applications in agricultural industries.
The thermal conditions experienced during development can affect host-associated microbial communities. We still know little about whether such effects similarly persist across life stages between different species. In particular, it is unclear if the bacterial communities of closely interacting species, such as hosts and their endoparasitoids, exhibit similar responses to thermal conditions. We reared two generations of the Melitaea cinxia butterfly and its specialized parasitoid wasp, Hyposoter horticola, at three temperatures in the laboratory (26, 28, and 31°C). We found that the two species harbour different bacterial communities as adults, with the parasitoid exhibiting higher bacterial richness than its host butterfly. When the parental generation of the butterfly was exposed to high temperatures, the F1 generation exhibited increased bacterial richness but a reduced diversity (Shannon index). The opposite effect was observed for its parasitoid, but only for the wasps infected with Wolbachia, which appears sensitive to thermal conditions. Collectively, these results highlight that the bacterial communities of insect hosts and their parasitoids are distinct units, differently susceptible to environmental thermal conditions, particularly to temperatures experienced at the parental generation.
The ovary is one of the first organs to lose functionality with age. We found that aging of the Drosophila ovary is characterized by an accumulation of phenotypes in the somatic compartment, including failure of the follicle cells to encapsulate germ-cell cysts, an extended S phase, and increased DNA damage. In aged ovaries, follicle encapsulation defects are associated with the lack of a germ-cell cyst checkpoint in early oogenesis. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that, across all cell types in the ovary, cells in the follicle lineage have the highest number of differentially expressed genes. Overexpression of Atg8a, a key autophagy machinery gene homologous to mammalian LC3, specifically in follicle cells prevents age-associated decline in the follicle epithelium and loss of reproductive capacity. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that genetic manipulation of a small population of ovarian somatic cells is sufficient to improve both cell-autonomous and non-autonomous features of reproductive aging.
Tomatoes are widely cultivated worldwide and contribute substantially to vegetable production. However, the root-knot nematode (RKN) disease caused by Meloidogyne incognita poses a serious threat to tomato cultivation. The most economical and effective way to control this disease is to deploy resistant cultivars. While the disease resistance provided by the original Mi-1 gene is gradually weakening, highlighting the need to identify new resistance genes for tomato breeding. In this study, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was performed on root samples from the resistant tomato cultivar 'Jinpeng M6' and the susceptible cultivar 'Jinpeng No.1', with sampling conducted at Stage 1 and 2 for 'Jinpeng M6' and Stage 1-6 for 'Jinpeng No.1' based on characterized M. incognita infection dynamics. Comparative transcriptome analysis identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and qRT PCR validated the expression patterns of 12 selected DEGs. A total of 9,673 DEGs were identified, with Stage 2 representing a critical period for distinguishing the infection-responsive patterns between the two cultivars. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed a dominant "Plant-pathogen interaction" pathway in resistant cultivar, while the susceptible cultivar showed enriched "Plant hormone signal transduction" and "Circadian rhythm - plant" pathways. qRT PCR confirmed DEG expression consistency with RNA-seq, and the shared phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway in both cultivars showed significant DEG expression divergence at Stage 2. The results indicate that the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway exhibits cultivar-specific responses to nematode infection and potential roles in tomato resistance. This study provides a theoretical foundation forelucidating the molecular mechanism of tomato resistance to M. incognita, and a scientific basis for screening RKN-resistant tomato germplasm resources.
Artificial selection of functional genes shapes crops agronomic traits including disease resistance and reproductive development. Recently, Lin et al. (2026) reported that rice nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptor (NLR) XA48 and its associated transcription factors (TFs) OsVOZ1/2 underwent differential artificial selection upon infection by diverse Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) strains. This asymmetric selection has shaped rice resistance to Xoo and grain yield, uncovering a novel NLR-TF immune module (XA48-VOZs). Here, we discuss the molecular mechanisms of this module, the evolutionary implication of its differential selection, and its potential application, particularly in combination with the pattern-recognition receptor (PRR) XA21 for breeding rice varieties with broad-spectrum resistance to bacterial leaf blight (BLB).