Epilepsy is a disorder of the central nervous system characterized by the onset of seizures that significantly worsens the independence and quality of life of people affected. Although significant progress has been obtained in the research and development of pharmacological approaches able to reduce the frequency of seizures, a significant number of patients with epilepsy remain drug-resistant, highlighting the need for further research aimed at understanding the physiological mechanisms underlying neuronal excitability. In this regard, neurosteroids have been identified as key molecules in neuronal excitability due to their ability to influence GABAergic transmission paving the way for studies and research to better understand their role in epileptic mechanisms. Interestingly, some evidence has shown that moderate to intense physical exercise can influence neurosteroid synthesis, such as allopregnanolone, pregnenolone and tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone, suggesting a therapeutic potential for physical activity in the context of epilepsy. In fact, the most recent clinical evidence has prompted a re-evaluation of the role of exercise in epilepsy, shifting from a risk factor to a non-pharmacological tool able to improve cognition and quality of life in people with epilepsy. This narrative review of the literature focuses on the role of exercise as a positive modulator of neurosteroid synthesis, as crucial GABAergic modulators, and its use as a promising non-pharmacological strategy for epilepsy.
Loneliness is a pervasive concern in the Broader Autism Phenotype, yet research often treats autistic traits as homogeneous risk factor, obscuring potential adaptive pathways. The distinct roles of social-communicative difficulties versus cognitive traits (e.g., Attention to Detail) in shaping friendship remain underexplored, particularly in non-Western contexts. A sample of 1,076 Chinese adults completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient, adapted friendship similarity items (interest and personality similarity), the UCLA Loneliness Scale, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale. After excluding 4 participants with non-binary gender, the analytical sample was 1,072. Serial mediation models with 5,000 bootstrap resamples were employed to examine whether autistic trait dimensions indirectly predicted life satisfaction through interest similarity and loneliness. Analyses revealed divergent pathways. Social skills (β = -0.105) and communication (β = -0.117) difficulties negatively predicted interest similarity, whereas Attention to Detail was a positive predictor (β = 0.059). Serial mediation confirmed that Attention to Detail had a significant positive indirect effect on life satisfaction via the interest similarity-loneliness chain [indirect effect = 0.00059, bias-corrected 95% CI (0.00006, 0.00159)], contrasting with the negative indirect effects of Social Skills (indirect effect = -0.00083) and Communication (indirect effect = -0.00123). A robustness check using personality similarity as mediator showed that the protective effect was specific to interest similarity. These findings challenge the monolithic deficit model by identifying Attention to Detail as a protective factor facilitating interest-based friendship connection. Distinguishing between social and cognitive autistic trait dimensions is crucial for developing tailoring, interest-based interventions to alleviate loneliness in Chinese adults.
Assessing the knowledge, awareness, perspectives, and desires for active involvement among youth regarding the combating of addiction and related policies holds a significant position within addiction prevention and intervention efforts. This study aims to evaluate university students' awareness, thoughts, and recommendations concerning the combating of addiction and its associated policies. A qualitative research design was adopted for this study. The study group consisted of 119 undergraduate students enrolled at a university in Türkiye. Data were collected via an online survey form developed by the researchers, which enabled participants to provide their own written expressions. During the data analysis process, a descriptive thematic content analysis approach was employed, in alignment with the descriptive qualitative research design. Our results demonstrated that university students possess a multidimensional perspective on the combating of addiction. It was observed that students support not only macro-level structural interventions but also individual-centered strategies. The most frequently emphasized themes were "Prohibitions, Sanctions, and Monitoring Mechanisms" and "Education and Awareness-Oriented Approaches." A significant finding of our study is that students' knowledge regarding existing policies is considerably insufficient. Our study indicates that involving youth and university students in the process of combating and preventing addiction is crucial for ensuring that strategies achieve greater effectiveness.
As a representative physical factor in the extracellular matrix (ECM), ECM stiffness regulates fibroblast behaviors and contributes to physiological homeostasis and pathological processes. This process relies on mechanosensors, including integrin-based adhesion complexes, mechanosensitive ion channels, and discoidin domain receptors (DDRs), which detect changes in stiffness and transduce them into biochemical signals. Through downstream pathways including YAP/TAZ and RhoA/ROCK, ECM stiffness modulates essential cellular behaviors such as adhesion, migration, proliferation, and differentiation, adapting to the requirements of tissue homeostasis. Under pathological conditions, abnormal elevation of ECM stiffness occurs in tumor and fibrotic tissues, forming a vicious cycle of ECM deposition-increased stiffness-abnormal cellular activation. Therefore, deciphering the regulatory mechanisms of ECM stiffness on fibroblasts not only deepens the understanding of the interaction between cells and the mechanical microenvironment but also provides crucial theoretical support and innovative ideas for the targeted therapy of diseases such as tumors and fibrosis, as well as the development of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
GABAergic synaptic inhibition is heterogenous across neuronal compartments, and plays a critical role in shaping local, cellular and circuit excitability. In pyramidal neurons, inhibition is mediated by GABA A receptors (GABA A Rs) clustered at the inhibitory postsynaptic domain (iPSD). Synaptic strength depends not only on the number of GABA A Rs within the iPSD, but also on their precise nanoscale organization into discrete sub-synaptic domains (SSDs). These SSDs often align with presynaptic GABA release sites to form nanocolumn structures that enhance synaptic efficacy. While nanocolumn organization is increasingly recognized as a key determinant of synaptic function, most studies of GABAergic synapses have focused on archetypal dendritic synapses, which control the plasticity and integration of excitatory inputs. Nonetheless, it remains unclear whether somatic synapses - which deliver and provide robust inhibition to suppress neuronal output - share a similar nanoscale organization. Here, we used complementary super-resolution imaging approaches to directly compare inhibitory synapses in somatic and dendritic compartments. We found that somatic synapses are larger and exhibit greater structural diversity and nanoscale complexity than dendritic synapses. Dendritic synapses display relatively compact architectures with GABA A R SSDs frequently arranged into nanocolumns. In contrast, somatic synapses show a broader range of organizations, including aligned nanocolumns as well as more disorganized configurations with additional misaligned release sites or receptor SSDs. Computational modeling revealed that these structural differences produce distinct functional outcomes, including increased IPSC amplitude and altered kinetics at somatic synapses. Together, our findings demonstrate that nanoscale organization differentially shapes inhibitory strength and signaling properties across neuronal compartments. Diverse GABAergic synaptic inhibition is crucial to control brain excitability and its efficacy is influenced by the nanoscale trans-synaptic alignment of GABA A Rs and GABA release sites. Although GABA A R nano-architecture is defined at dendritic synapses, the extent to which this organization is conserved across GABAergic synapses with distinct synaptic properties is unknown. Using super-resolution imaging methods, we report that inhibitory synapses in the soma are larger and more structurally diverse than dendritic synapses, exhibiting both aligned and more disorganized configurations. Combined with computational modeling indicating distinct nanoarchitectures can create heterogeneous inhibitory currents, these findings suggest a key role for nanoscale organization in the generation of diverse synaptic outputs across the neuron, which could serve distinct circuit functions.
The early postpartum period is a crucial phase in a mother's adaptation to caregiving demands, physical recovery, and social pressures. In Indonesia, postpartum stress is further shaped by cultural norms, extended family involvement, and societal expectations. Despite the importance of these factors, measurement tools specifically tailored for the early postpartum phase in the local cultural context are limited. This study aims to develop a Postpartum Stress Scale to assess stress levels in early postpartum mothers, ensuring its construct validity and reliability. The research was conducted in two stages: the first stage utilized qualitative Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with experts to establish construct and content validity, while the second stage employed Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis on data collected from 223 early postpartum mothers. The results indicated a robust four-factor structure with strong content validity and satisfactory psychometric properties, including high construct reliability and good model fit. The developed scale offers a reliable, multidimensional tool for assessing postpartum stress and holds promise for use in clinical practice and maternal mental health research.
Gallbladder carcinoma (GBC) is an aggressive malignancy with a poor prognosis, often diagnosed at a locally advanced stage. Accurate risk stratification is crucial for optimizing treatment, yet conventional imaging and staging systems have limitations. This study aimed to evaluate the prognostic value of metabolic and volumetric parameters from 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography ( 18 F-FDG PET/CT) in patients with locally advanced GBC. This retrospective study included 32 patients with biopsy-confirmed, locally advanced GBC who underwent baseline 18 F-FDG PET/CT. The standard uptake values (SUVmax, SUVmean), metabolic tumor volume (MTV), and total lesion glycolysis (TLG) were measured for both primary tumors and nodal metastases. A univariate Cox proportional hazards model was used to assess the association between these volumetric metabolic PET parameters and progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). The multivariate Cox model was used to test the independence of significant univariate prognostic factors. In the univariate analysis of volumetric metabolic PET parameters of primary tumors, higher pSUVmean (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.39, p  = 0.04), pTLG2.5 (per 100 units; HR: 1.01, p  = 0.02), pMTV40 (HR: 1.00, p  = 0.02), and pTLG40 (per 100 units; HR: 1.09, p  = 0.01) were all significantly associated with worse OS. Similar significant associations were found for PFS. Notably, the conventional metric of pSUVmax was not a significant predictor of either PFS ( p  = 0.11) or OS ( p  = 0.25). On multivariate analysis, pTLG40 remained an independent predictor of survival. Furthermore, none of the volumetric metabolic PET parameters derived from nodal metastases showed a significant association with survival outcomes. Volumetric metabolic PET parameters, particularly TLG and MTV, which reflect the total metabolic burden of the primary tumor, may offer greater prognostic utility in locally advanced GBC compared with the conventional SUVmax. These parameters should be considered for integration into prognostic models to enhance patient risk stratification and guide personalized therapeutic strategies.
Diabetes mellitus (DM) and neurological disorders are rapidly converging global health burdens, driven by population ageing, the growing prevalence of metabolic syndrome, and limited early detection and disease-modifying therapies for many neurological syndromes. Beyond its established role in diabetes-related peripheral neuropathy, DM is increasingly implicated as a modifier of risk, phenotype, and prognosis across a wide range of central and peripheral nervous system diseases. In this narrative review, we synthesize current epidemiological, clinical, genetic, and mechanistic evidence examining the relationship between DM and 10 clinically important neurological disorders: Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia (VaD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP), multiple sclerosis (MS), myasthenia gravis (MG), and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD). Across these conditions, DM acts as a context-dependent disease modifier, increasing risk in some disorders, appearing protective or delaying onset in others, and influencing disease phenotype, progression, and treatment response. We highlight potential areas of mechanistic convergence, such as insulin resistance, inflammation, disrupted energy homeostasis, and genetic predisposition, alongside important divergences shaped by disease-specific pathology. We also discuss the clinical and translational implications of this interface, including diagnostic challenges, opportunities for improved risk stratification, and growing interest in repurposing antidiabetic therapies, particularly metformin, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors, for neurological benefit. As the global burden of diabetes and neurological disease escalates, it is crucial to better understand the interplay between metabolic dysfunction, neurodegeneration, and neuro-immune pathways. The integration of insights across diseases may inform prevention strategies and support the development of therapeutic interventions at the metabolic-neurological interface.
In this study, we integrate first-principles calculations with experimental statistics to systematically elucidate the fundamentally distinct mechanisms of S and Fe doping on dislocation defects in vertical gradient freeze (VGF)-grown indium phosphide (InP) crystals. Atomic-scale analysis reveals, for the first time, that S substitution at P sites forms shorter and stronger In-S bonds (bond length shortened from 2.54 to 2.42 Å), inducing significant lattice hardening (elastic modulus increased by ∼15%). The resultant local strain field effectively pins dislocations, significantly lowering the dislocation density. Experiments confirm the dislocation density hierarchy: heavily S-doped < lightly S-doped < nondoped. Conversely, Fe doping reduces the material's yield strength and stacking fault energy. Furthermore, due to its extremely low solid solubility, Fe leads to supersaturation and precipitation of FeP2 secondary phases during VGF. Crystal quality characterization (X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman) indicates that high S-doped samples exhibit superior crystalline integrity, while Fe-doped samples (especially the tail) show the poorest quality. Based on these mechanisms, we optimized the VGF + VB process to control the solid-liquid interface and solute segregation, effectively suppressing Fe precipitation and improving dislocation distribution and electrical uniformity. This research provides a crucial theoretical foundation and a clear process pathway for the rational design of InP single crystals with both excellent electrical properties and ultrahigh structural integrity.
In children's hospitals, pediatric subspecialists provide crucial diagnostic and therapeutic guidance for hospital-based clinicians around-the-clock. Consultation commonly occurs through secure text message systems (STMS) with potential important impacts on trainee sleep and wellbeing. We sought to quantify STMS metadata to on call subspeciality fellows overnight in a single children's hospital over a 6-month period (March to August 2024). We analyzed STMS metadata for message counts and timing patterns. We found significant differences in call shift message volume across subspecialists (p < .001). Fellows in the hospital received 32 more messages per shift compared to fellows at home (53 to 21; p < .001). We found significant differences in the median longest time between messages across subspecialties (p < .001), ranging from 1.6 to 10.0 h. Guidance on clinical workload duty hours for trainees was developed prior to technological advances in clinical communication and requires further evaluation considering overnight messaging burden and impact on sleep.
The selective conversion of CO2 into hydrocarbon fuels through photocatalytic methods offers a sustainable route for carbon utilization and energy storage. In this study, a novel hybrid photoelectrocatalyst, FPS@Ph-g-C3N4-Ho3Fe5O12, was developed to enhance CO2 reduction efficiency under visible light assisted electrochemical conditions. The integration of g-C3N4 with the Ho3Fe5O12 garnet and FPS support enables synergistic improvements in light harvesting, charge separation, and surface reactivity. The g-C3N4 layer provides a high surface area conductive interface, promoting active site availability and facilitating multi electron transfer processes crucial for hydrocarbon formation. This hierarchical structure effectively drives the reduction of CO2 into methane and higher order hydrocarbons through mechanisms involving deoxygenation and C-C coupling. The evolution of product profiles over time provides insights into the reaction pathways and intermediate species. The results highlight the potential of FPS@g-C3N4-Ho3Fe5O12 as a robust and efficient system for visible light driven CO2 conversion toward valuable hydrocarbon fuels.
Mutations in the PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP genes are known to cause Alzheimer's disease (AD). Among these, PSEN1 mutations are the most frequent causes of autosomal dominant early-onset AD (EOAD). Patients harboring pathogenic mutations often exhibit considerable clinical heterogeneity. Identifying novel mutations and analyzing their associations with clinical cases is crucial for advancing our understanding of the pathogenesis of AD. This report describes the clinical presentation of a family with EOAD. The proband was a 43-year-old Chinese female who presented with a three-year history of cognitive decline for 3 years. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated diffuse cerebral cortical atrophy. Next-generation sequencing identified a novel heterozygous c.668A>T mutation in PSEN1, which resulted in a p.Gln223 Leu. cerebrospinal fluid biomarker analysis revealed abnormal levels of amyloid and tau, indicative of underlying Alzheimer's pathology. Furthermore, 18F-flortaucipir (AV-1451) positron emission topography and 18F-florbetapir (AV-45) positron emission topography imaging demonstrated extensive cerebral amyloid beta and tau deposition. We report a novel pathogenic PSEN1 mutation, Q223 L, identified for the first time in a Chinese family with EOAD.
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are currently limited by a critical trade-off between the need for thick absorber layers (1000-1500 nm) to ensure sufficient light absorption and the environmental concerns regarding high lead (Pb) toxicity. While metal-based general light-trapping strategies like plasmonics or surface texturing have been explored, they often involve complex fabrication or offer marginal gains with high reflective loss. In this work, we present a high-performance, lead-reduced strategy using an optimized array of SiO2 dielectric material-based nanospheres which can confine and scatter light with almost zero loss. By embedding a 61 nm diameter three-sphere array 50% into the FTO layer, we achieve significant optical confinement via angular scattering. This mechanism allows a thin 300 nm MAPbI3 layer to achieve a 10.7% enhancement in average absorption, raising the short-circuit current density (J sc) to 29.11 mA cm-2 and the power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 22.58% to 24.61%. Crucially, this architecture enables a 73.78% reduction in lead content without sacrificing performance. This approach provides a scalable and eco-friendly pathway for the development of stable, high-efficiency, and low-toxicity next-generation photovoltaics.
Understanding the core diseases and comorbidity patterns of maternal complications during pregnancy and delivery is crucial for developing preventive strategies and improving pregnancy outcomes. This cross-sectional study investigated maternal complications during pregnancy and delivery in women who gave birth at the Shanghai First Maternity and Infant Hospital between January 2023 and November 2025. A comorbidity network of maternal complications was constructed, and core comorbidities within the network were identified on the basis of topological network indicators. The Apriori association rule algorithm was applied to identify common binary comorbidity patterns in maternal health. The average age of the 15,773 female participants was 31.12 (3.53) years. The most common pregnancy-related complication was anemia during pregnancy (27.95%), whereas the most common delivery-related complication was postpartum hemorrhage (21.24%). Network analysis revealed that gestational diabetes mellitus was positioned at the center of the comorbidity network and exhibited the highest strength centrality (strength = 1.61). When separate comorbidity networks were constructed for the advanced maternal age and nonadvanced maternal age groups, no significant differences were found between the networks (P > 0.05). The Apriori algorithm generated 40 association rules, with the strongest association based on the lift values between "gestational diabetes mellitus and gestational hypertension" (lift = 3.868). The core complication in both the advanced maternal age and nonadvanced maternal age groups during pregnancy and delivery was gestational diabetes mellitus, with the core comorbidity pair being "gestational diabetes mellitus and gestational hypertension". These findings suggest that prioritizing joint screening and integrated management of gestational diabetes mellitus and gestational hypertension may help reduce downstream complications and improve maternal outcomes.
Unilateral pulmonary edema (UPE) is a rare manifestation of mitral regurgitation (MR) and may be misdiagnosed as pneumonia. We report a 63-year-old man with a history of mitral valve repair who presented with dyspnea and right-sided pulmonary edema (PE). Despite initial antibiotic therapy, the PE did not improve. Echocardiography revealed severe MR due to pseudo-prolapse of the anterior mitral leaflet, with the regurgitant jet directed toward the right pulmonary veins. Right heart catheterization demonstrated a prominent V wave on the right pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. This case highlights the diagnostic value of echocardiography and catheterization in acute-on-chronic MR-induced UPE. ・Differential diagnosis of unilateral pulmonary edema is often necessary to distinguish it from pneumonia or heart failure due to mitral regurgitation.・Echocardiographic evaluation of flow direction and mechanism, combined with bilateral pressure waveform confirmation by right heart catheterization, is crucial for diagnosis.・Unilateral pulmonary edema can occur not only in acute but also in acute-on-chronic mitral regurgitation.
Evans Syndrome (ES) is an immune-mediated disorder defined by the presence of two or more autoimmune cytopenias, typically autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) and immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), with or without associated neutropenia. The disease can be classified as primary (i.e., idiopathic) or secondary to other underlying conditions, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), lymphoproliferative disorders, infections, and immunodeficiency states. We present a case of ES in a 21-year-old pregnant woman (G1P0, 19 weeks and 2 days gestation) secondary to SLE. The patient was treated with high-dose steroids and intravenous immunoglobulin therapy (IVIG), resulting in marked improvement in her cell counts. Following delivery, she was diagnosed with SLE and began treatment with rituximab and hydroxychloroquine, leading to remission of her symptoms and normalization of her anemia and thrombocytopenia. The varied presentations and associated conditions make ES a challenging diagnostic conundrum. Differentiating between primary and secondary ES is crucial for prognosis and management.
Gene regulatory networks undergo dynamic restructuring during development and disease. Identifying when and how these networks change is crucial for understanding developmental and disease transitions, yet existing change-point detection methods often ignore network structure or lack interpretable community assignments. We present PARROT (Phase-Altering Regulatory Rewiring Over Time), a framework for detecting change-points in dynamic networks using Stochastic Block Models. PARROT jointly estimates change-point locations and community structure across four network classes: unipartite and bipartite with either Gaussian or Bernoulli edge models. Simulations demonstrate improved performance and community recovery compared to other methods. Applications to human cardiac differentiation and mouse lung development data successfully recovered known phase boundaries. PARROT identifies both which genes are reassigned across modules and how the connections change between states. PARROT is available as an R package at https://github.com/cchen22/PARROT . chenchen9945@gmail.com. Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Postpyloric enteral feeding is recommended for ICU patients at high risk of aspiration. However, blind placement carries a rare yet potentially life-threatening risk of tube misplacement into the pleural cavity. We present a case in which blind insertion of a fine-bore naso-intestinal tube led to intrapleural malposition in an elderly patient with a history of radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). A 78-year-old Chinese man with severe dysphagia following radiotherapy for NPC underwent tracheotomy due to respiratory failure and was subsequently transferred to the ICU. The naso-intestinal tube was inserted blindly, and its position was considered appropriate based on limited fluid aspiration and auscultation. Nine hours later, chest radiography revealed that the tube had traversed through the trachea, entered the right lower-lobe bronchus, extended into the pleural cavity, and terminated mid-thorax. The tube was promptly removed and accurately repositioned into the stomach under laryngoscopic guidance. Blind postpyloric tube placement in patients with radiation-induced anatomical and neurological changes following NPC may result in silent intrapleural misplacement. Immediate pH testing combined with radiographic confirmation is crucial to prevent this potentially fatal complication.
The Department of Gastroenterological Surgery at Kumamoto University has maintained a commitment to integrating cutting-edge clinical practice with fundamental research, particularly concerning malignant diseases of the digestive tract. This comprehensive review aimed to synthesize and consolidate the key clinical and translational research achievements published by our department, primarily focusing on gastric cancer (GC) and the pathophysiological mechanisms that drive its progression. We systematically reviewed the most impactful English-language original research papers from our institution, since 2005. The identified studies span critical areas including molecular carcinogenesis, tumor microenvironment (TME) components, and mechanisms of systemic metastasis and drug resistance, and so on. Our accumulated research has yielded significant insights into the molecular basis of GC. A core area of contribution includes the genetic and epigenetic changes during carcinogenesis of gastric cancer or Gastric Adenocarcinoma and Proximal Polyposis of the Stomach (GAPPS), the tumor microenvironment (TME) especially focusing on Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs), a factor promoting peritoneal dissemination of ECM-related genes and gut microbiota. Furthermore, our translational work has explored mechanisms of resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. The collective research from our department represents a crucial contribution to the global understanding of gastric cancer pathogenesis, progression, and clinical management. These findings underscore our commitment to translating basic scientific discoveries into actionable strategies that advance individualized therapy, ultimately improving the long-term prognosis for patients with digestive malignancies.
The precise control of microstructural properties in Co3O4 nanoparticles is crucial for performance, however, the relationship between synthesis method, crystallite size, and lattice strain remains unclear. In this study, Co3O4 nanoparticles were systematically synthesized using three distinct methods: sonochemical, chemical precipitation, and hydrothermal, to evaluate the method-dependent evolution of their structural characteristics. Phase purity and crystalline structure were rigorously analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), while the Debye-Scherrer equation and the Williamson-Hall method were employed to quantitatively decouple the effects of finite crystallite size and internal microstrain on peak broadening. Key results demonstrate that the synthesis route is a decisive factor in structural tailoring: chemical precipitation yielded the smallest crystallite size (12.1 nm) with the highest dislocation density (6.83 × 10-3 nm-2), suggesting a defect-rich surface that may enhance catalytic activity. Conversely, the hydrothermal method produced a higher degree of crystallinity with low dislocation density (0.88 × 10-3 nm-2), but introduced higher residual microstrain (2.49 × 10-3) due to rapid growth dynamics. TEM characterization results confirmed the formation of irregular and quasi-spherical morphologies, along with size distribution analysis. UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed two distinct absorption bands corresponding to ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT). A noticeable reduction in the optical band gap was observed for the Co3O4-CP sample. This shift is directly associated with increased lattice strain identified in structural analysis and quantum confinement effects. SEM and EDS results indicated that the synthesis method strongly affects the morphology of Co3O4, while confirming the homogeneous presence and distribution of cobalt and oxygen throughout the samples. These findings provide a strategic roadmap for selecting synthesis parameters to engineer Co3O4 nanostructures with specific defect densities and strain profiles for targeted industrial applications.