Facial beauty has been cherished around the world and has captivated humans throughout history. Despite a series of attempts, however, it is still almost impossible to accurately define beauty. Its precise perception remains unanswered and is definitely partially subjective. Several disciplines have been studying facial beauty and attractiveness, including but not limited to philosophy, psychology, evolutionary physiology, sociology, neuroscience and cognitive sciences, computer imaging, human biology, and anatomy, as well as art history and plastic surgery. Each specialist approaches the topic from his/her own personal standpoint and expertise, thus adding another dimension to our perceptions regarding the definition of facial beauty. In addition, several geometric, mathematical formulas, grids, and canons (rules) were developed over the centuries in an effort to provide standardized explanations of facial beauty based on mathematical analysis of facial proportions. In this short review article, concepts of facial beauty are analyzed from historical, philosophical, and mathematical perspectives as well as from the standpoint of neuroesthetics and psychology. Current concepts in the era of social media and artificial intelligence, and their influence, are also summarized.
Art portraits convey two related yet distinct hedonic values: beauty of the image and attractiveness of the person depicted. This study explored how these values relate to objective properties. Three hundred participants rated 192 art portraits (Baroque, Impressionism, Expressionism) on beauty and attractiveness. Quantitative image properties (QIPs) were analyzed using the QIP toolbox. Beauty and attractiveness ratings were highly correlated, yet regression analyses showed that beauty ratings were linked to style and distinct QIPs (mainly self-similarity and mirror symmetry), whereas attractiveness ratings were characterized by style and a diffuse pattern of weak QIP contributions. These findings suggest that while both ratings are perceptually distinct in art portraits, only beauty judgments are systematically related to self-similarity and symmetry.
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Anatomy is a unique subject where one must learn by doing. This is achieved through a variety of methods like dissection, use of prosections, imaging, playful learning (crocheting structures, drawing, and painting organs), through functional movement like yoga or pilates, use of 3D plastic models or by immersing oneself in virtual or augmented realities. Experiential learning, as described by Kolb, that is "learning by doing," underpins all practical aspects of learning this important but fact dense subject. Reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation follow on from the concrete experience, first usually experienced either in the dissecting room or through living anatomy. We map out how the educator can best support the learner to move from one stage to the next to gain the most out of their learning experiences in anatomy. Though anatomy is rich and diverse in the ways it can be taught, we focus on dissection and encountering anatomy through imaging to illustrate how experiential learning theory permeates everyday teaching and learning practices. Many opinions have been offered on dissection as a learning method, which we believe is foundational for healthcare students learning the subject, as well as the importance of offering radiology within the anatomy curriculum and we hope to illustrate how the two are mutually dependent and not exclusive.
Eucyphonia Sakakibara, 1968, originally described as Cyphonia Laporte, 1832, is characterized by its elaborated pronotum, featuring bilobed suprahumeral processes and ornate posterior process. Examination of Membracidae material housed at the Natural History Museum of Vienna revealed a remarkable new species from Brazil, Eucyphonia nuggetta Rodríguez-Serrano & Raupach sp. nov. This species can be readily distinguished by its ochre body coloration with brown shading and a uniquely coarsely tuberculate pronotal surface, markedly differing from that of other Eucyphonia species. A detailed description and illustrations of this species are provided, together with an updated identification key for Eucyphonia. With this addition, the number of known species in the genus increases to ten. Our findings highlight the critical role of museum collections for documenting hidden diversity and refining taxonomic knowledge in poorly studied groups.
Social media influencers are online micro-celebrities who post niche content regarding their personal lives to their followers on social media. Recently, virtual influencers (digital creations designed to mimic humans) have been introduced to social media and are often used to interact with and influence social media users, yet little is known regarding their effects on followers. The current experimental study examined the effects of exposure to human influencers vs. virtual influencers in a sample of adult women (N = 303), ages 18-74 recruited via Prolific. Participants were randomly assigned to view Instagram images of human influencers, virtual influencers, or architectural images. Those assigned to the human and virtual influencer conditions reported increased body dissatisfaction but did not significantly differ in levels of facial dissatisfaction or interest in cosmetic surgery compared to a control group. No significant differences in any outcome variables were found between the human and virtual influencer conditions. Additionally, appearance comparisons and age did not moderate the relationship between the assigned condition and the outcome variables. Results suggest that women respond similarly to human and virtual influencers, regardless of age and tendency to engage in appearance comparisons.
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Framing physical beauty as a barometer of health, this article charts the dialogue between early modern medical instruction (regimens and recipes) and figurative artworks. This dialogue took on new potency in the Renaissance with the widespread circulation of medical regimens and recipes in print, and reinvigorated cultural imagery that foregrounded the body. At the same time, the threat and lasting impact of infectious diseases on the skin, including smallpox and syphilis, and Europeans' growing contact with individuals from Africa, Asia and the Americas, heightened awareness of bodily vulnerability and difference. Mythological paintings, images of the lady at her toilette and portraits are analysed to demonstrate the parallel medical and visual interests in 'natural' beauty and its associated healthful appearance, cultivated through cleansing the face, hands, hair and teeth. Reading figurative artworks alongside medical regimens and recipes demonstrates the close perceived relationship between physical beauty and health; the influence of medical theory, including humouralism, on depictions of the body; anxieties and interventions related to disease and race; and the central role of women as experts, providers and consumers of body care. Taking a regional view with artworks and texts from early modern Italy, France, Germany, England and the Dutch Republic, this article highlights the potential for visual studies in the medical humanities to develop understanding of past beauty practices while also acknowledging limitations and suggesting future lines of research.
This study advances current discourse by introducing a novel analytic framework-the global quest for genital beauty-to clarify how sociocultural ideals of vulva appearance shape motivations, meanings, and policy responses surrounding female genital cutting (FGC) and female genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS). Using a theory‑informed narrative synthesis of literature published between 2015 and August 2025 across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, supplemented by seminal theoretical works and agency reports. The analysis demonstrates that although FGC and FGCS arise within distinct sociocultural systems, both are influenced by gendered expectations about bodily propriety and aesthetic norms. The review identifies substantial variations within each category: FGC encompasses procedures with differing degrees of tissue alteration and risk, while FGCS includes a growing array of elective cosmetic interventions shaped by media, pornography, and clinical marketing. An estimated 230 million women and girls in countries with available survey data have undergone FGC, requiring a 27‑fold acceleration in progress to meet the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal target, while clinical organizations report rising demands for FGCS despite limited evidence of benefit and acknowledged risks. By applying the genital beauty framework, this study reframes the comparison between FGC and FGCS, highlighting both their divergences and their shared entanglement with globalized beauty norms. This perspective supports more precise ethical, clinical, and policy guidance, including rights‑based strategies to accelerate abandonment of FGC and reduce non‑therapeutic demand for FGCS through regulation, norm‑change interventions, and education about genital diversity.
The cervico-mental angle has emerged as a key focus in contemporary aesthetic surgery, symbolizing youth, vitality, and refined facial harmony. Yet classic ideals of beauty did not always favor this sharply defined contour. This article compares the cervico-mental angle across Classic Greek sculpture, Hellenistic art, and modern aesthetic standards. Classic works-particularly the goddesses of the 5th century BCE-presented fuller submental profiles that conveyed serenity, modesty, and divine distance. Hellenistic sculpture gradually introduced greater anatomic realism, including more visible submental curvature, reflecting an artistic shift toward individualized bodies and emotional expressiveness. Modern aesthetic surgery, by contrast, privileges precise cervico-mental definition through fat removal, platysma modification, and skeletal augmentation, projecting an ideal of athleticism and youth. By tracing these shifts, this essay argues that the cervico-mental angle is not merely an anatomic measurement but a cultural register of how societies envision beauty, virtue, age, and identity. For plastic surgeons, understanding these historical aesthetics enriches both technique and ethical awareness in contemporary neck contouring.
The growing demand for cosmetic services and plastic surgery has become a global phenomenon influenced by economic, social, and cultural factors. This systematic review aims to identify and analyze the key determinants influencing individuals' decisions to undergo cosmetic interventions. This study was conducted following Preferredd Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A systematic search was conducted in major databases, including PubMed, ProQuest, Science Direct, and Magiran, using relevant Persian and English keywords between 2000 and August 30, 2023. Review articles, clinical studies, non-health system-related papers, and inaccessible texts were excluded. Depending on the study design, data were analyzed using either qualitative or quantitative content analysis, with discrepancies resolved through expert review. Out of 316 identified studies, 18 (12 in English and 6 in Persian) met the inclusion criteria. The most common cosmetic procedures included rhinoplasty, liposuction, blepharoplasty, Botox injections, and laser hair removal. The key determinants influencing individuals' decisions to undergo cosmetic interventions were categorized into three main groups: Socioeconomic Factors, Body Image Management and Psychological Traits and Cultural Influences, and Social Acceptance and Religious Beliefs. Understanding the factors influencing cosmetic surgery trends is essential for health policymakers, psychologists, and cosmetic professionals to develop effective interventions promoting mental well-being, increasing public awareness, and mitigating unrealistic expectations. Implementing pre-surgical mental health screenings and promoting realistic beauty standards may mitigate the potential negative consequences of the increasing demand for cosmetic procedures. Culturally sensitive strategies can also help redefine beauty standards and encourage the responsible use of cosmetic services.
In the context of mating, individuals of the same sex often act as rivals in the pursuit, attraction, and retention of desirable partners. This study explored the relationships between intrasexual competition and various aspects of human mating psychology across three countries: Canada, Hungary, and Indonesia. A total of 661 adults (including women, men, non-binary, and gender-unspecified individuals) completed an online questionnaire assessing sensation seeking, aggression, beauty-enhancing behavior, openness to cosmetic surgery, sexual motivation, and sociosexuality. Hypotheses were tested via Bayesian multilevel modeling. Measurement invariance testing and alignment procedures were conducted to address potential cross-cultural non-invariance. Results indicated that the superiority enjoyment component of intrasexual competition showed consistent positive associations with the examined psychological variables. Associations involving inferiority frustration were generally weaker and less consistent. The findings for openness to cosmetic surgery, sociosexuality, and aggression replicate prior research, whereas the links with sensation seeking, beauty-enhancing behavior, and sexual motivation extend the literature. Cross-national comparisons revealed no significant country differences in superiority enjoyment, whereas Canadian participants scored significantly lower than Hungarian and Indonesian participants in inferiority frustration, with no significant difference between the latter two groups. Overall, the findings suggest that intrasexual competition-particularly its superiority enjoyment component-shows consistent associations with mating-relevant psychological traits across cultural contexts, even when mean levels differ between societies.
Labiaplasty has expanded worldwide, provoking debate over whether it reflects women's liberation, reinforces objectifying beauty norms, or medicalizes normal vulvar variation. Clinicians lack integrative guidance linking outcomes with feminist ethical analysis. To synthesize evidence on labiaplasty through feminist frameworks of liberation, objectification, and medicalization; evaluate functional, sexual, and psychological outcomes; and propose a clinical framework centered on relational autonomy and non-pathologizing education. A narrative review of peer-reviewed literature (2002-2025) was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar, with screening of relevance based on predefined thematic domains including motivations, outcomes, sociocultural influences, and ethics. Empirical studies on motivations, outcomes, and educational interventions were included as clinical evidence, while feminist theoretical and ethical analyses were used for interpretive synthesis. Data were synthesized thematically along three axes: Liberation/autonomy, objectification/sociocultural pressure, and medicalization of normal anatomy. Utilization of labiaplasty has increased markedly, including in adolescents, although population-level rates remain underreported. Patients commonly endorse overlapping functional, aesthetic, and psychosexual motivations; many have labial dimensions within published normative ranges. Prospective cohorts and meta-analyses show high satisfaction and improvement in pain, functional symptoms, genital self-image, and sexual function, with low rates of major complications or long-term sensory loss when nerve-sparing techniques are used. However, elevated body-image distress and clinically significant body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) occur in a substantial subset. Media, pornography, and clinical marketing narrow perceptions of "normality," while language and diagnostic labels can pathologize benign variation. Labiaplasty sits at the intersection of liberation, objectification, and medicalization: Many patients experience benefit, yet decisions are shaped by sociocultural forces that constrain autonomy and recast normal anatomy as abnormal. The proposed L.A.B.I.A. framework (legal safeguards, autonomy assessment, body-image/BDD screening, informed consent and non-pathologizing education, and aftercare) offers clinicians an ethically grounded approach to counseling, patient selection, and follow-up while underscoring the need for education and policy that normalize vulvar diversity.
The intersection of art and orthopaedic surgery represents a profound synthesis of technical precision, aesthetic sensibility, and humanistic care. This narrative review examines the artistic dimensions of orthopaedic surgery, with particular emphasis on hand and upper extremity procedures in which form and function are inextricably linked. We trace the historical evolution of surgical artistry from Renaissance anatomists and craftsmen, including Ambroise Pare, whose articulated prosthetic hands united the ingenuity of locksmiths with the vision of surgeons, through nineteenth-century operative theatre culture, in which surgical skill was evaluated for its elegance and grace as much as its outcomes, to modern microsurgery and the age of robotics. Drawing on a systematic review of peer-reviewed sources spanning anatomy, reconstructive surgery, outcomes research, and the philosophy of craft, we analyse the application of core artistic principles, proportion, symmetry, harmony, rhythm, and balance, to surgical practice, demonstrating that these concepts provide a functional framework for operative decision-making, technique selection, and outcome evaluation. The surgeon's role extends beyond technical competence to encompass aesthetic judgment, creative problem-solving, spatial visualisation, and an appreciation for the beauty inherent in anatomical restoration. Specific techniques in hand and upper extremity surgery are examined as case studies of artistic principle applied to clinical practice: toe-to-hand microsurgical transfer, soft-tissue flap coverage, fingertip and nail reconstruction, scar management, rheumatoid hand reconstruction, and congenital deformity correction each illustrate how aesthetic refinement and functional restoration are not competing objectives but mutually reinforcing goals. Patient-reported outcomes related to aesthetic satisfaction are evaluated through validated measures including the Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS), with evidence confirming that hand appearance constitutes a significant determinant of patient satisfaction, psychological well-being, and quality of life (QoL). The education of the surgeon's hand, through apprenticeship, deliberate practice, and embodied tactile experience with instruments, is identified as an irreplaceable component of surgical formation that no technological advance can render obsolete. We conclude that excellence in orthopaedic surgery demands mastery of three interrelated domains: scientific knowledge, technical skill, and artistic sensibility. Future directions include the formal integration of aesthetic training into surgical curricula, development of objective aesthetic outcome metrics, expanded use of three-dimensional imaging for aesthetic planning, and institutional recognition of the artistic dimensions of surgical practice as essential components of comprehensive, patient-centred care.
The clinical dilemmas in this 6 year analysis, with this single woman in her 30s, (whom I saw mostly in candidacy), unfolded into a dramatic, yet simultaneously stalled analysis that remained intrapsychically frozen. My conceptualization of the interaction was of the patient and me as Echo and Narcissus. The best I felt I could do for her, and for the analysis, was to explore those dimensions - yet always the enactment seemed more of a self-exploration than a meaningful communication with her. I include some ideas of how I might proceed somewhat differently, many years later. The despair in the contact led me to a more empathic view of the yearning of Narcissus, which has classically been interpreted as his cruel failure to appreciate Echo's beauty and love for him, due to his self-absorbed love of himself. I introduce his deeper yearning as a constantly frustrated desire to contact the mind of the other. The punishment of Echo, reduced to echolalia, deprived her of an intercommunicative mind, except for a sound suggesting a craven dependency. This was frustratingly far from her intention too, and confined her to her physicality alone. Their stall led to emotional death. Did ours?
The rising demand for cosmetic gluteal fat grafting is partially attributed to social influence and evolving beauty standards. On the social media platform TikTok alone, content related to what is colloquially known as the Brazilian Butt Lift (BBL) garnered over 15 billion views in the past 3 years, raising concerns about the potential influence of visually striking yet possibly misleading media content on patient decisions and perceptions. This study aimed to analyze the source and content of BBL-related TikTok videos to assess the quality of information presented to potential patients. To characterize top-ranked Brazilian butt lift (BBL) content on TikTok by evaluating (1) creator type and video category, (2) engagement metrics, (3) the quality of educational content using the Patient Education Materials Assessment Tool (PEMAT), and (4) the geographic distribution of patient-reported procedure locations and provider/clinic locations. Using the TikTok application, 14 phrases related to the Brazilian butt lift procedure were analyzed. Video analysis included engagement metrics, digital creator type, and video category. The quality of educational content was assessed using the validated PEMAT. A locational analysis of the digital creators was also performed, focusing on the geographic area where patients received their procedures or where physician/cosmetic clinics were located. As an observational content analysis, causal inferences could not be made. Three hundred fifty videos were included in our study. Patients had the highest percentage of videos (29.1%), followed by "other" (29.0%), and plastic surgeons (20%). Educational videos accounted for the highest percentage of video types (26.6%). Educational videos posted by plastic surgeons had significantly higher understandability and actionability scores than those of non-healthcare creators when using PEMAT (P < .001) but had substantially lower views, likes, and saves (P < .05). Locational analysis revealed that 77.1% of patient-generated videos with identifiable procedure location referenced procedures reported as having been performed internationally or in Miami (P = .021). The Brazilian butt lift garners high engagement on TikTok. Educational content is common among video subtypes and is high quality when posted by plastic surgeons; however, educational videos receive higher engagement statistics when posted by non-healthcare creators. Content posted by self-identified BBL patients more frequently referenced procedures performed internationally or in Miami; locations that have been associated in prior epidemiologic literature with higher complication and mortality rates in gluteal fat grafting and cosmetic tourism.
To address the evaluation bias in conventional urban spatial design and governance that prioritizes functional provision over lived experience, this study proposes an implementable multi-source data-driven framework for multi-dimensional urban spatial perception, supporting urban diagnosis and grid-based governance. The framework integrates three categories of information within a unified spatial unit: (1) extracting interpretable environmental attributes from street-view images and predicting six dimensions of affective perception, including beauty, liveliness, and perceived safety; (2) characterizing supply-agglomeration patterns and supply intensity using spatiotemporal trajectories and mobile phone signaling data; and (3) identifying functional rhythms-daily, periodic, and occasional-by leveraging POI semantics and temporal periodicity. Building on these components, we construct a three-dimensional matrix of "affective perception-agglomeration intensity-regional function," classify Wuhan's urban space into 18 types of multi-dimensional perception units, and identify key areas requiring targeted, category-specific governance. Furthermore, the typology is linked to governance-oriented references for different spatial types, including feasible street- and community-level actions, corresponding leverage variables, and potential indicators for future monitoring or before-after assessment. Rather than constituting a complete closed-loop health-check system, the framework provides a diagnostic basis for urban problem identification, intervention prioritization, and refined governance.
Facial appearance strongly influences professional and social outcomes, with individuals perceived as more attractive often receiving increased job opportunities-a phenomenon known as "attractiveness bias." As facial plastic surgery becomes increasingly common, its potential impact on workplace dynamics and ethics warrants evaluation. This scoping review synthesizes current evidence examining the relationship between facial aesthetic surgery, attractiveness bias, psychosocial outcomes, and professional trajectories. A comprehensive search of the MEDLINE database via PubMed, Cochrane Library, SCOPUS, and PsycINFO was conducted (inception-September 10, 2025) according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Controlled vocabulary (MeSH) and free-text terms related to facial aesthetic surgery, career outcomes, and attractiveness bias were combined. Studies were included if they examined surgical facial aesthetic or reconstructive procedures and assessed self-perception, attractiveness bias, professional or socioeconomic outcomes, or appearance-related psychological distress. Sixty-one studies met inclusion criteria and were synthesized qualitatively into 3 conceptual domains. Across studies, facial aesthetic surgery consistently enhanced both self-perception and external evaluations. Postoperative images were rated as more attractive, trustworthy, competent, and intelligent than preoperative images. Patients reported improved self-esteem and social functioning, with several studies identifying career advancement as a key motivator. In contrast, individuals with facial trauma, congenital malformations, or features diverging from cultural beauty norms reported discrimination and lower levels of overall satisfaction. Rates of body dysmorphic disorder among surgical candidates ranged from 2.5% to 32%. Facial aesthetic surgery may influence professional outcomes by modifying self-confidence and how others perceive competence. Plastic surgeons should recognize workplace-related motivations during consultation and incorporate ethical counseling to ensure informed decision-making. Further longitudinal research is needed to clarify whether cosmetic enhancement leads to tangible increased earnings. Level of Evidence: 3 (Therapeutic).
Female genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS) has gained international attention because of changing beauty standards, social media influence, and greater access to surgical services. Although global evidence highlights rising awareness and uptake, data from Saudi Arabia remain scarce. This review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines. A systematic search of PubMed, Google Scholar, the Saudi Medical Journal archive, and Index Medicus for the Eastern Mediterranean Region was conducted up to August 25, 2025. Eligible peer-reviewed English-language studies were those conducted in Saudi Arabia that examined awareness, attitudes, satisfaction, complications, or ethical perspectives. Methodological quality was appraised using Joanna Briggs Institute checklists. Of 1421 records identified, 5 studies met the inclusion criteria: 4 cross-sectional surveys and 1 case series. Awareness among Saudi women was moderate (∼50%), with 19% considering FGCS, whereas uptake remained low (7%-8%). Satisfaction among women who underwent surgery exceeded 85%. Physicians and medical students expressed cautious, ethically concerned attitudes, particularly toward hymenoplasty and vaginal rejuvenation. Reported complications were infrequent (<10%) and minor, although 1 case series described clitoral hood hair-thread tourniquet syndrome in pediatric patients. FGCS in Saudi Arabia is an emerging field. The findings highlight persistent ethical debates among physicians and underscore the urgent need for larger prospective studies and culturally sensitive national guidelines to regulate practice and align patient autonomy with societal values. This review aimed to systematically gather and summarize existing studies on FGCS in Saudi Arabia, with attention to awareness, attitudes, satisfaction, complications, and ethical concerns. Level of Evidence: 4 (Risk).
 The medical curriculum is demanding and often associated with significant stress among students. This study aimed to assess life satisfaction among undergraduate medical students in Northern India and explore factors associated with life satisfaction, including sociodemographic and psychological factors.  This cross-sectional study was conducted among undergraduate medical students from selected medical colleges in Northern India. A multistage random sampling technique was used to select institutions and participants. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire administered through confidential face-to-face interviews after obtaining informed consent. Postinterview deidentification procedures were implemented. No names or direct identifiers were recorded on the questionnaire forms, and each participant was assigned a unique study code.  A total of 415 students participated, of whom 64.1% were male participants. Overall, 64.6% reported being satisfied with their lives. Life satisfaction showed a significant negative correlation with perceived stress (r = -0.331, p < 0.001) and moderate positive correlations with subjective happiness (r = 0.477, p < 0.001) and self-confidence (r = 0.411, p < 0.001). Weak positive correlations were observed between life satisfaction and meditation practice (r = 0.181), spirituality (r = 0.189), gratitude (r = 0.184), and appreciation of beauty (r = 0.227), indicating small effect sizes despite statistical significance (all p < 0.001). In multiple linear regression analysis, subjective happiness (β = 0.328, p < 0.001), self-confidence (β = 0.191, p < 0.001), and perceived stress (β = -0.170, p < 0.001) emerged as significant independent predictors of life satisfaction.  Subjective happiness and self-confidence were independently associated with higher life satisfaction, whereas perceived stress was independently associated with lower life satisfaction. Although coping practices such as meditation and gratitude showed weaker associations, the findings highlight the potential relevance of psychological well-being and coping-related factors in understanding life satisfaction among medical students.