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Venoms contain toxins that are increasingly recognized as valuable sources of biologically active compounds. In this study, we examined the biochemical and biophysical properties of PLA₂, CRISP, and SVMP fractions isolated from Naja ashei venom with the detailed description of their interactions with cell membranes. By integrating these results with our previous analysis of the 3FTx fractions, we provide a broad and coherent overview of the most relevant protein components in N. ashei venom. Experiments were performed on two cancer cell lines with distinct membrane architectures: HL-60 (leukemia) and SK-N-SH (neuroblastoma). These lines differ particularly in membrane cholesterol content and in the saturation level of hydrophobic lipid parts. Our results enabled a comparative assessment of how each protein fraction modulates the mechanical and electrostatic properties of both model and native membranes. In agreement with predictions derived from model lipid systems, leukemia cell membranes were more susceptible to toxin-induced damage than neuroblastoma membranes, likely owing to their higher proportion of unsaturated lipids. Physicochemical analyses confirmed that the isolated PLA2, CRISP, and SVMP fractions alter key membrane parameters, including stiffness, elasticity, lipid-protein interactions, and the net charge of the polar headgroup region. Importantly, this work provides new insights into the membrane-level effects of SVMP and CRISP proteins, which have been less comprehensively studied compared with well characterized 3FTx and PLA₂ families. These results reveal distinct, cell membrane-dependent responses to N. ashei venom proteins and justify further basic research to better understand their action with cells.

Ranger patrols are a cornerstone of wildlife protection efforts around the world and occur across all ecological governance systems. Evidence that patrols reduce threats to wildlife and enable their recovery has not been systematically examined previously. Without evidence of patrol effectiveness in varying contexts, protected area managers risk wasting limited conservation resources and lack information required to improve the effectiveness of patrols. We conducted a meta-analysis evaluating the effectiveness of terrestrial patrols for conserving African, Asian, and Latin American wildlife directly threatened by exploitation. After filtering 57 studies, we calculated effect sizes from each of the remaining 15 studies that included a comparator and measurement of wildlife abundance and calculated standardised mean difference and % change in wildlife species abundance. Results suggest tentative support that areas implementing patrols (alongside other interventions) were associated with higher wildlife abundance levels compared to time periods or locations without patrols. We were unable to confirm causality between patrols and changes in wildlife population abundance because studies were inadequately designed to evaluate and report on effectiveness. Studies commonly lacked a comparator or counterfactual event, temporal or spatial replication, and consistent and/or long-term monitoring of population abundance, and had study designs that confounded conservation actions. Further, of the 15 included studies linking wildlife abundance to patrol efforts, five also reported a reduction in a poaching threat, but only three of these used a comparator in the threat reduction evaluation. Without monitoring threat trends alongside wildlife abundance, it is difficult to be confident that patrols resulted in increases in wildlife abundance. To help evaluate patrol interventions (i.e. not only whether they work but where and under what conditions they work), we identify opportunities to improve future patrol effectiveness research and provide recommendations on how to improve the evidence base.

The prosocial choice paradigm is a widely used method in studies of prosocial behavior in chimpanzees, but findings produced using this approach have been inconsistent. One potential source of these discrepancies is the lack of control for motor lateralization. The present study examined the influence of motor lateralization on decision-making in four chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed at the Warsaw Zoo. Subjects chose between prosocial (1/1) and selfish (1/0) tokens under three experimental conditions: (a) tokens randomly mixed within the feeder, (b) tokens arranged in single-color stacks on opposite sides, and (c) mixed tokens without a partner (ghost condition). Each individual made 200 decisions per condition over a three-month period. Results indicated that chimpanzees were significantly more likely to choose the prosocial option when token placement minimized lateralization effects through random mixing. In contrast, when tokens were presented in fixed locations, choices were systematically influenced by the physical convenience of reaching, reflecting individual motor preferences. These findings highlight the importance of controlling motor lateralization in studies using the prosocial choice paradigm. Even with motor lateralization controlled, the presence of a partner proved essential for demonstrating prosociality. Prosociality was not detected in the so-called ghost condition, where no partner is present. Future research should increase the number of trials, distribute sessions over time, randomize token placement, and examine the relationship between task-based decisions and broader patterns of social interaction.

Animal welfare is increasingly assessed through the "Five Domains" framework, where monitoring brain activity via electroencephalography (EEG) is essential for objectively evaluating sleep-wake cycles and neurological health. However, traditional EEG studies in animals often require invasive procedures, anesthesia, and movement restriction, which compromise both animal welfare and natural behavior. To overcome these limitations, we developed a miniaturized wireless EEG device (24.8 × 24.8 × 8.2 mm; 5.2 g) with Bluetooth transmission, surface electrodes, and biocompatible adhesives. This system allows 10-12 h of recording without restricting movement while remaining compatible with animal welfare standards. We validated the methodology in three amniote species representing major vertebrate classes: Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea), gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua), and aardvark (Orycteropus afer). Recordings were conducted on conscious, freely moving animals in zoological facilities, and signals were analyzed using spectral frequency analysis. Three distinct EEG patterns were consistently identified across all species: active wakefulness, characterized by desynchronized high-frequency waves (0-30 Hz) and locomotor activity; NREM sleep or a homologous state, marked by synchronized high-amplitude, low-frequency waves (0.5-4 Hz); and REM sleep or a homologous state, defined by desynchronized high-frequency waves without locomotor activity. Fundamental brainwave frequencies (delta, theta, alpha, beta and gamma) were consistent and conserved across species, while amplitude varied according to anatomical differences. Interestingly, we observed specific patterns of EEG frequencies distribution in the three species, reflecting unique evolutionary spectral profiles, such as alpha dominance during aardvark wakefulness, theta profusion in penguin wakefulness and REM sleep, and delta massiveness in tortoise NREM sleep. This non-invasive methodology successfully distinguishes and records sleep-wake patterns in reptiles, birds, and mammals without surgical procedures, demonstrating that high-quality neurophysiological data can be obtained while adhering to animal welfare principles. The system maintained signal integrity within a 15-meter range, allowing for naturalistic behaviors in home enclosures. The technique opens new possibilities for longitudinal behavioral studies, detection of neurological disorders, and comparative sleep research in captive animals, representing a significant advance toward more ethical practices in animal neuroscience.

Rotifers (Rotifera) are microscopic pseudocoelomate animals that represent one of the key components of plankton, periphyton and benthos communities in aquatic ecosystems. As members of the zooplankton, they play an important role as primary consumers of phyto- and bacterioplankton, serve as a food source for fish larvae and act as indicators of water quality. Although rotifers have been studied in Europe for over three centuries, they remain an important subject of zoological research, as their ecological characteristics and biodiversity in several European countries are still insufficiently understood. This is particularly true for bdelloid rotifers, whose study is complicated by the impossibility of reliable identification in fixed material. The availability of georeferenced data on rotifer occurrences, coupled with environmental parameters, is of great importance for such studies, yet such data on the GBIF platform are not complete for many aquatic rotifer species. We present new georeferenced data on rotifers in all major types of European freshwater and brackish inland waterbodies: lotic (rivers, streams, brooks, waterfalls, canals), lentic (lakes, ponds, swamps, bogs, marshes, puddles, cryoconite holes and other temporary waterbodies) and transitional (estuaries). The littoral zone of the Black Sea and the southern coast of the English Channel (La Manche) are represented as marine habitats in this dataset. Twenty-five protected areas were surveyed during this study.The survey was conducted from 1976 to 2021. In total, we added to GBIF 4,862 new occurrences of Phylum Rotifera, including the classes Eurotatoria (subclasses Monogononta and Bdelloidea) and Pararotatoria. The dataset substantially expands the information on the distribution of still inadequately studied bdelloid rotifers (Bdelloidea) available through GBIF (1,514 new occurrences are added). We focused our study on aquatic communities that have received less attention than planktonic ones, such as periphytic, benthic and psammic rotifers and commensals on aquatic invertebrates. We also added new data on rotifers in waterfalls (6 species), temporary waterbodies (153 taxa of species rank) and tree hollows (5 species). Three species amongst those recorded are new to the fauna of Ukraine: Lecane elsa Hauer, 1931, Lindia pallida Harring & Myers, 1922, Paradicranophorus aculeatus (Neizvestnova-Zhadina, 1935).

During November-December 2020, a disease outbreak involving eastern mudsnakes (Farancia abacura abacura) was documented in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida, USA. Moribund snakes were observed writhing on riverbanks with concomitant frothy oral discharge. Pathological examination revealed necrotizing enteritis and pulmonary edema, and a reptilian ferlavirus phylogenetically related to anaconda paramyxoviruses was isolated. While ferlaviruses are well-described pathogens of snakes in zoological and private collections worldwide, this represented the first outbreak of ferlaviruses recorded in free-ranging snakes. To biologically characterize this virus, we performed in vitro analyses including host range, relative infectivity, and temperature-dependent fitness assays. As one outstanding question in paramyxovirus biology is the functional role of the U protein, which is unique to ferlaviruses, we investigated its spatiotemporal expression in infected cells, demonstrating its localization to viral inclusion bodies. Additionally, we sampled Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus), an invasive constrictor species, in and around the outbreak site in the Everglades for reptilian ferlaviruses, resulting in the discovery of the first terrestrial alphavirus detected in the United States in over 50 years and a novel hepacivirus that putatively contains a third protease which is evolutionarily conserved among lower vertebrate hepaciviruses and may have arisen by duplication of the NS2-3 protease. Although the impact of Burmese pythons on the Everglades ecosystem via the predation of native species has garnered much attention, little is known regarding the diversity of viral pathogens they harbor and the potential risks they may pose to native wildlife and other animal hosts through viral cross-species transmission. Although the evolution, molecular biology, and pathogenesis of numerous disease-causing animal paramyxoviruses have been examined extensively, studies on reptilian ferlaviruses-which have been responsible for large-scale mortality events in snakes in managed settings for decades-have lagged significantly. Herein, we document the first recognized ferlavirus disease outbreak in free-ranging snakes and provide new insights on the ferlavirus-specific U protein and reptilian host range that make these viruses unique among the paramyxoviruses. In searching for the potential source of ferlaviruses in nature, we discovered other novel RNA viruses in Burmese pythons, an invasive constrictor species introduced into the Everglades. In addition to extending the known diversity of reptilian viruses, these findings provide new fundamental insights into mammalian virus evolution and highlight the potential dangers of the cross-species transmission of such viruses into native snakes and other wildlife.

Limbs are the principal locomotory structures in vertebrate body, closely related to the habitat use and locomotion strategies of the species. Sea turtles rely almost entirely on their fore flippers for aquatic locomotion. The humerus is the most crucial bone structure connecting the scapulocoracoid and flipper, and studies thereof are used to understand turtles' locomotion mechanisms and swimming strategies. To define the morphological traits of the humerus of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonia mydas) turtles and analyze interspecific differences, sea turtle carcasses were sampled from strandings and bycatch in Korean waters within their northern range limit. The length and width of the carapace, plastron, and 15 parts of the left humerus from the carcasses were measured and analyzed. The humerus length and width were positively linearly correlated with the straight carapace length of both sea turtle species, indicating that the carapace size of sea turtles can be reasonably estimated based on the size of the humerus. Additionally, significant interspecific differences were identified in 12 humeral segments, with loggerhead turtles having a humerus that was longer overall but thinner toward the shoulder than green turtles. These differences may be related to their migration patterns, as loggerhead turtles, which migrate long distances, have elongated humeri that are wider toward the tip, which may reflect their efficient use of ocean currents for swimming instead of relying on flapping. In contrast, the green turtle, which is a more vigorous swimmer, has a short but thick humerus that can withstand the stress on the shoulder caused by flapping. These findings demonstrate that bone structure and function differ among even closely related species, depending on their habitat and the environmental exploitation strategies employed.

Dingoes (Canis familiaris) are an iconic Australian species and the top land predator. Much interest exists in their radiation process and evolutionary history in Australia. Recent research indicated that two evolutionarily independent units exist and that detected effective population size changes are due to the active control of this species. However, these conclusions have been critiqued because they were not explicitly tested or because the model assumptions may not be met in dingoes. We set out to statistically test these hypotheses by comparing alternative migration models and carrying out demographic analyses. We conclude that there is strong statistical support for the existence of the two evolutionary units. However, the analysis carried out to estimate the time of the effective population size changes does not have the required power to conclusively demonstrate whether the current management is having an impact on dingo populations. Future studies and different approaches will be needed to test this hypothesis.

Based on recent studies using both field surveys and laboratory experiments, we review a number of central reproductive traits of the androdioecious barnacle Scalpellum scalpellum. For the first time in any scalpellid species, development has been followed from cypris settlement until a mature dwarf male and compared with the early ontogeny of hermaphrodites. Cyprids settled in preformed receptacles on mature hermaphrodites started to deviate structurally from hermaphrodites almost immediately after attachment. After 14 days they had matured into adult dwarf males that do not resemble any stage in hermaphrodite ontogeny. Therefore, S. scalpellum males are not hermaphrodites arrested in development but the result of a much more profound evolutionary history. Settlement experiments showed that all cyprids are capable of settling and developing into hermaphrodites. Development into males happens only in cyprids attached in receptacles on adult hermaphrodites and must therefore be governed by environmental sex determination (ESD), presumably induced by some chemical factor(s) present only in the receptacle area. We observed mating between hermaphrodites and between a hermaphrodite and its dwarf males. Hermaphrodite to hermaphrodite mating resembles that seen in balanomorphan barnacles, except that adjacent specimens often check their environment with their cirri for the presence of a mating partner. Dwarf male mating is by means of a unique penis structure, made almost exclusively of cuticle and extending from inside the male and bending down into the brood chamber of its partner. This male penis is much larger (relatively to body size) than the structurally very different penis of the hermaphrodite individuals. The hermaphrodite recognizes when the dwarf male extends its penis and arrests its cirral motion so as not to damage or disturb its tiny partner. For the adult hermaphrodites we showed that their allocation of resources to male and female functions is in agreement with predictions from sex allocation theory. As predicted, solitary hermaphrodites allocated fewer resources to male function than those settled gregariously, where one or several hermaphrodite partners are within mating distance. The solitary individuals had both a shorter penis and less developed testes than the gregarious ones. As also predicted, solitary hermaphrodites were more likely to carry males than the gregarious ones.

Pangolins have become emblematic of the global wildlife trade crisis due to intense trafficking for consumption and traditional medicine. Coupled with habitat loss, the illicit trade in pangolins has severely threatened wild populations. Genetic identification of distinct pangolin populations is an imperative step toward guiding effective and informed conservation management. These populations can serve as a reference for assigning seized individuals to their geographic origins, and thus tracing trafficking networks. However, pangolin population genetics studies have been hindered by limited sampling of geo-referenced individuals, largely due to the species' elusive nature. To address this, we developed a tailored gene-capture approach targeting 671 loci totaling 627 kb with high evolutionary and adaptive value across all eight pangolin species. We optimized the approach for low-quality DNA, including samples from museum collections and wildlife trade, such as bushmeat and scale seizures. We reassessed range-wide population delineations for the three most traded species, the white-bellied (Phataginus tricuspis), Sunda (Manis javanica), and Chinese (M. pentadactyla) pangolins, highlighting the need for biogeographically consistent lineage nomenclature and spatially aware analyses to support coherent conservation planning. The unprecedented geo-referenced DNA database for the three species yielded snapshot insights into pangolin trafficking hotspots and trade dynamics of both domestic markets and global trade seizures, the former providing novel insights into bushmeat trade. Domestic trade reflects local and occasional cross-border sourcing, averaging 454 km across the three species, while international trafficking seizures in mostly scales point to broader, regional procurement. However, common sourcing regions between the two trade market types indicate their interconnectivity, suggesting that local trade may contribute to international trade supply. Our study identified significant international trade hotspots for the white-bellied, Sunda, and Chinese pangolins, centered around southwestern Cameroon, southwestern Borneo Island, and Myanmar, respectively. Addressing geo-referenced sampling gaps and increasing local-to-global seizure data over time may offer deeper spatiotemporal insights into pangolin trade dynamics. Our study design may serve as a replicable model for enabling authorities and practitioners to implement intelligence-driven, geographically targeted interventions, by identifying the key regions most implicated in pangolin trafficking.

Vertebrate embryogenesis follows a conserved trajectory, exhibiting divergence in early and late stages and conservation during mid-embryogenesis across species. This pattern, known as the developmental hourglass, was first described at the morphological level and later supported by molecular studies, establishing it as a hallmark of vertebrate development. The "waist" of the hourglass, representing the period most resilient to evolutionary change, coincides with the emergence of the body plan, when embryos across species appear most alike. Yet development is not simply an organism-level process; it arises from the coordinated behaviors of individual cell lineages that collectively generate form and function. If the hourglass reflects a fundamental principle of vertebrate development, might it also be rooted in the dynamics of cells themselves? In this Perspective, we revisit the hourglass model through the lens of cellular lineages, asking whether the conservation of mid-embryogenesis is underpinned by universal constraints at the level of individual cells. Could the vertebrate developmental hourglass truly have a cellular basis?

Research increasingly points to the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in modulating host-virus interactions, including in insects. EVs may carry cargo molecules that stimulate the host's antiviral defences, such as small RNAs, or may physically interfere with viral interactions with host cells. However, EVs may also be hijacked by viruses to facilitate infection. Based on the studies available in insects, and building on research in mammals, we review the role of EVs in host-virus interactions. We highlight the multifaceted dynamics of these interactions, which depend on the particulars of the host and virus in question. We conclude by summarising major themes and pointing out suggestions for future research.

Modern zoos operate at the intersection of conservation responsibility, ethical accountability and scientific advancement, while facing increasing public scrutiny and rising expectations for transparency and measurable impact. This scrutiny often focuses on animal welfare and the justification for maintaining wild animals in captive environments. Consequently, there is a growing need for zoo-based research to move beyond often anecdotal practice toward robust, evidence-informed decision-making. Evidence refers to systematically collected data and critically evaluated research used to inform management strategies that promote the zoo's key aims. This article synthesises key areas in which contemporary zoo operations rely on limited or untested evidence and identifies priority research questions critical to the future legitimacy and effectiveness of zoos. The paper explores several interlinked themes: the welfare implications of reproduction and breeding management; the role of social bonds in welfare, stress resilience, and translocation outcomes; the underrepresentation of nutrition within animal welfare research; the impacts of human-animal interactions involving both staff and visitors; the maintenance of species-specific behaviours and behavioural diversity in ex situ managed populations; and the relationship between animal welfare, visitor experience, and a zoo's social licence to operate. These themes were identified through persistent assumptions in zoo practice, gaps in the empirical literature, and increasing societal expectations for transparency, ethical justification, and measurable outcomes. Across these areas, the paper highlights a recurring challenge: management practices are frequently justified on theoretical or historical grounds rather than validated, applied outcomes, and conclusions from single studies are often overinterpreted despite limited replication or contextual relevance. Our article therefore emphasises the importance of defining credible evidence, critically appraising published research, and adopting replicated, collaborative multi-institutional and mixed-methods approaches. By outlining these research priorities, this paper provides a framework for advancing zoo-based science that can directly inform management decisions, improve animal welfare outcomes, strengthen conservation impact, build public trust and thus future-proof the zoo industry. Ultimately, we argue that the future success of zoos depends on aligning ethical practice, rigorous research, and meaningful visitor engagement through transparent, evidence-driven approaches.

We present a morphology-based backbone phylogeny of Cerambycidae beetles inferred by parsimony analyses using 77 adult characters scored for 101 species. This phylogeny is largely consistent with recent phylogenomic studies regarding key placements (e.g., Parandrini stat. rev. within Prioninae, Necydalini stat. rev. within Lepturinae, the sister-group relationship of Cerambycinae with Prioninae (including Parandrini), the monophyly of Saperdini, the non-monophyly of some Lamiinae tribes), while differing primarily in the position of Lamiinae. By testing various character and taxon-sampling partitions we revealed that some of the most variable external characters and all genital characters (without exploring aedeagal internal sac) have low phylogenetic signal, but still the more inclusive analyses are the most robust. Across all our analyses, Cerambycidae s.l. are consistently recovered as monophyletic, with Disteniinae stat. rev., Vesperinae stat. rev., and Oxypeltinae stat. rev. placed inside or adjacent to the core Cerambycidae s.s. clade depending on character sampling. Our results highlight the strength of phylogenomics in providing a robust framework for higher-level relationships, but also emphasize that morphology-based analyses remain indispensable for identifying and interpreting the character systems that define those relationships. This study exemplifies complementarity of morphological and genomic evidence, while providing a broad morphology-based phylogenetic analysis of Cerambycidae.

Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a globally significant agricultural pest that has developed varying degrees of resistance to numerous classes of insecticides. Studies on the plant growth regulator mepiquat chloride (DPC) indicate that direct exposure inhibits development and reduces the reproductive capacity of A. gossypii. However, the effects of combining DPC with insecticides on the development and population dynamics of A. gossypii remain unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of DPC in conjunction with sublethal doses of imidacloprid (IMI-LC30) and sulfoxaflor (SUL-LC30) on the toxicity and sublethal effects of A. gossypii, using life table parameters and qPCR analysis. The results showed that the combination of DPC with IMI or SUL did not enhance the toxicity of either IMI or SUL. Compared to treatments with IMI-LC30 or SUL-LC30 alone, the combination treatments showed no significant differences in longevity, fecundity, and population parameters of the F0 generation. However, the fecundity of the F1 generation was significantly reduced, and population parameters also exhibited a decreasing trend. Moreover, exposure of A. gossypii to IMI-LC30 or SUL-LC30 resulted in the upregulation of reproduction-related genes Vg and VgR in the F1 generation. This effect was suppressed when either IMI-LC30 or SUL-LC30 was co-applied with DPC. These findings demonstrate that combining DPC, in combination with IMI or SUL, can suppress the population resurgence of A. gossypii induced by sublethal exposure to these insecticides on their own. This research provides insights for the effective use of DPC and insecticides.

Praying mantises (Mantodea) are well known for their predatory behavior and striking appearance, yet surprisingly little is known about their tarsal attachment systems. Comparative studies on other polyneopteran insect clades based on large taxon samplings suggest distinct ecomorphological adaptations in the attachment systems. Detailed investigations into the micromorphology of mantis attachment pads remain scarce, although ecomorphs in Mantodea predict similar attachment pad specialisations. We studied the tarsal morphology of a selection of 33 species of Mantodea across the phylogeny including the early-diverging lineages Chaeteessa, Mantoida and Metallyticus, as well as representatives for the range of mantodean habitats. Scanning electron microscopy investigations revealed that both functional principles of animal attachment pads (smooth and hairy) are found within Mantodea: Chaeteessa, which is considered the sister group to all other mantises, features split tenent setae with spatula-shaped tips on their tarsal pads (euplantulae), while the remaining mantodean species possess smooth attachment pads. Some ecomorphological adaptations are observed among the studied species, such as pad asymmetry, ridge-like microstructures on the pad surfaces, and variations in the shape of the euplantulae However, these adaptations are much less pronounced and variable than the microstructural adaptations found in other Polyneoptera. The predatory behavior of mantises potentially results in less strict substrate-specific constraints on their attachment organs compared to herbivorous insect groups that evolved to specialize on certain plant surfaces. Furthermore, functional aspects of the morphological adaptations of the attachment systems of Mantodea are discussed.

Marine isopods play key ecological roles in coastal ecosystems, yet genomic resources for this group remain scarce, limiting our understanding of their evolutionary history and adaptive potential. Here, we present the first de novo whole-genome assembly of the Mediterranean lineage Idotea balthica basteri (Audouin, 1826), generated using Oxford Nanopore long-read sequencing. The final assembly spans ∼477 Mb, with a contig N50 of 19 kb and a BUSCO completeness of 64.4%, representing the first genomic blueprint for a Mediterranean Idotea population. Structural annotation identified approximately 44,000 predicted genes, revealing a complex architecture characterized by distinctive distributions of mono-exonic and multi-exonic genes. Functional annotation based on COG categories highlighted a metabolically active and highly regulated genome, with strong representation of genes involved in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, and genome maintenance. The presence of expanded gene families associated with cellulose degradation, detoxification, stress response, and chemosensory perception reflects adaptation to seagrass-dominated habitats and a detritivorous/herbivorous lifestyle. Comparative analyses with the available Baltic I. balthica genome revealed significant differences in genome size, gene content, and functional capacity, consistent with long-term evolutionary divergence between Mediterranean and Northern European populations. Notably, divergent gene architecture and exon-intron organization provide independent genomic support for the existence of a cryptic Mediterranean lineage, reinforcing previous phylogenetic and biogeographic hypotheses. Together, these results indicate that I. balthica basteri represents a distinct evolutionary unit and offer a valuable genomic resource for future studies on isopod evolution, coastal ecosystem functioning, and the impacts of environmental change on marine biodiversity.

While human activities are driving widespread declines in wildlife populations1,2, in Central Africa, the meat of wild animals, or wild meat, represents a major component of the diets of millions of people3. To halt faunal degradation while ensuring sustainable use of wildlife, it is crucial to understand the scale and drivers of wild meat consumption. Here, using data from over 12,000 households from 252 locations in Central Africa, we show that wild meat is a fundamental component of the diets of rural populations, accounting for 20% of the recommended daily protein intake, compared with 13% and 6% for those living in towns and cities. We estimate that the total annual biomass of wild meat consumed in Central Africa increased from 0.73 million to 1.10 million tonnes between 2000 and 2022, with increasing demand from towns and cities. To ensure that wild meat is available to rural communities, in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals4 and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework5, reducing wild meat consumption in urban metropolises is key. While our results are based on the most comprehensive dataset available, the geographical coverage is incomplete and the dataset represents a minimal fraction of the entire population of Central Africa. Targeted studies are needed to validate our model and assess critical areas of intervention.

To determine the bacterial contamination rate of communal mobile handheld devices (MHD) used in a small animal referral hospital before and after cleaning with commercially available antibacterial wipes, and then after 24&#x2005;hours of use. All 18 communal MHD at a small animal emergency referral hospital were swabbed following a standardised protocol at three time points: before cleaning (swab 1), immediately after cleaning (swab 2), and after 24&#x2005;hours of hospital-wide use (swab 3) to assess re-contamination rates. All swabs were sent to an external commercial laboratory for aerobic bacterial culture and species identification, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and S. pseudintermedius (MRSP). Results were reported as the presence or absence of the organisms isolated but not quantified. Differences in rates of bacterial contamination before and after cleaning were assessed using Cochran's Q test and Fisher's exact test. Swabs at swab session 1 showed 16/18 (88.9 (95% CI&#x2009;=&#x2009;67.2-96.9)%) MHD to be contaminated: 6/18 (33.3 (95% CI&#x2009;=&#x2009;10.9-55.7)%) with coliform bacteria, 5/18 (22.8 (95% CI&#x2009;=&#x2009;6.5-49.1)%) with Bacillus spp. and 5/18 (22.8 (95% CI&#x2009;=&#x2009;6.5-49.1)%) with coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS). No MRSA or MRSP were identified. Immediately after cleaning, contamination was found on 1/18 (5.6 (95% CI&#x2009;=&#x2009;0-16.5)%) devices. After 24&#x2005;hours, 12/18 (66.7 (95% CI&#x2009;=&#x2009;43.7-83.7)%) devices were contaminated, with coliform bacteria on 11/18 (61.1 (95% CI&#x2009;=&#x2009;37.9-84.3)%) and CNS on 1/18 (5.6 (95% CI 0-16.4)%); no Bacillus spp. were identified. Significant differences in contamination rates were observed across the three time points (p&#x2009;<&#x2009;0.001). The recontamination rate was 68.8%, with a rebound rate of 70.6% among culture-negative MHD. Communal MHD in this study were frequently contaminated, particularly with coliforms. Cleaning was associated with a marked, short-term reduction in detectable bacteria, but re-contamination rates following 24&#x2005;hours of normal use were high. The high colonisation rate of bacteria on MHD suggests that regular cleaning protocols are required to minimise potential bacterial spread to personnel and patients, particularly given the high rate of re-contamination 24&#x2005;hours after cleaning. Further studies are required to ascertain whether the source of contamination was human or animal, and whether it leads to transmission of disease and constitutes a health risk to patients.