Injury surveillance is fundamental for understanding and managing risks in elite football. The simultaneous organisation of Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) EURO 2024 and Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL) Copa America 2024 created a unique chance to use a standardised method across two major men's tournaments, providing descriptive insights into injury rates and patterns in various competitive settings. To analyse the incidence, severity and burden of time-loss injuries across both tournaments. A prospective injury surveillance study was conducted using standardised methodologies from UEFA's Elite Club Injury Study and International Olympic Committee reporting guidelines. Injury incidence rates (IRs) were calculated per 1000 hours of exposure, and injury burden was measured in tournament days lost per 1000 hours. A total of 85 injuries were recorded, resulting in an overall IR of 4.0 per 1000 hours (95% CI: 3.1 to 4.8). Match injury rates (16.3 per 1000 hours; 95% CI: 11.9 to 20.7) were significantly higher than training rates (1.8 per 1000 hours; 95% CI: 1.2 to 2.4). Injury rates were comparable between UEFA EURO (3.9 per 1000 hours; 95% CI: 2.9 to 4.9) and CONMEBOL Copa America (4.2 per 1000 hours; 95% CI: 2.6 to 5.7). The injury burden was higher in UEFA EURO (30.0 vs 18.3 days lost per 1000 hours). Muscle injuries (58%) and lower extremity injuries (86%) were the most common. Injury patterns were broadly similar across tournaments, with lower extremity injuries, particularly muscle injuries, being the most common. The study highlights the presence and impact of pre-existing injuries on player availability and underscores the practical value of harmonised injury surveillance, even in small sample contexts, to enhance international data comparability and support future multi-tournament analyses.
Post-match institutional communication has become a visible component of elite football events, yet comparable official messages can receive very different levels of public attention. This study examines UEFA Champions League post-match communication as a configurational problem rather than as a linear consequence of response speed or message strategy. Using 25 theoretically selected focal club-event observations from the 2017-2018-2022-2023 seasons, it calibrates one outcome set, High_News, from a Raw_Mentions-derived media-visibility proxy and four causal-condition sets: High_Delay, High_Shock, High_Stakes, and High_TemplateDeviation. The analysis uses conservative coding of template deviation, separating response latency from communication form. The intermediate solution identifies one stable high-stakes legacy pathway and one sensitivity-dependent crisis-minimalism pathway. The stable pathway combines non-delayed response, low outcome shock, high match stakes, and trophy/legacy-oriented template deviation. The crisis-minimalism pathway is retained in the baseline solution but is interpreted cautiously because it depends on medium-confidence coding and changes under strict recoding. The analysis of ~High_News confirms causal asymmetry: non-membership in the high-attention set is not simply the inverse of the pathway(s) associated with High_News. The findings contribute to sport communication research by showing how event structure and institutional discourse combine to produce bounded media visibility, while avoiding population-level claims about all football matches or internal platform algorithms.
Despite significant debate over UEFA's decision to abolish the away goals rule in 2021 and introduce the use of Video Assistant Refereeing (VAR), little research has considered its potential effects on team performance. Hence, this study investigates how the change in the goals rule and use of (VAR) during the knock phase of UEFA Women's Champions League affected selected game-related statistics. Data were sourced via the Wyscout platform. The sample consists of 78 UEFA Women's Champions League knockout round matches; 30 of the matches took place in seasons with the away goals rule (AGR) and no VAR (2016 to 2019) and 48 in seasons without AGR and VAR included (2021 to 2025). Data analysis was performed using a combination of T-Tests; Mann-Whitney-U Tests and Generalised Linear Models. The findings demonstrate that the change in rules resulted in a reductions in the numbers of balls lost (p < 0.01), ball recoveries (p < 0.01), long passes (p < 0.01), forward passes (p < 0.05), passes to the final third (p < 0.01), fouls (p < 0.05), aerial duels (p < 0.01), aerial duels won (p < 0.01), and free kicks (p < 0.01). In contrast, elimination of the away goals rule and inclusion of VAR led to a significant increase in the number of goals (p < 0.05), percentage of accurate passes and counter attacks with shots (p < 0.05). Football governing bodies could consider these findings when deciding whether the rule changes has impacted on the women's game as expected.
This study utilized social network analysis to explore the spatial characteristics of pitch-passing networks under four situational variables in the UEFA Women's Euro 2025, including match outcome, competition stage, score state, and match period. The pitch was divided into 48 distinct zones, and six network metrics were calculated. The results indicated that winning teams construct more efficient mediating links within pitch-passing networks, with a stronger reliance on flank-area utilization. From the group to the knockout, passing hubs shift from the defensive third toward the middle third and transitional zones, alongside enhanced local stability and circulation in the attacking third. Competitive pressure further reshapes the contribution of spatial regions to ball progression and network accessibility. In different score states, leading teams tend to maintain structured possession corridors in the defensive third to control risk, whereas trailing teams concentrate activity in central areas, exhibiting higher midfield intensity but reduced stable local passing structure. A significant decline in the physical capability of the pitch-passing networks was observed, with the 1st half characterized by broader distribution and stronger structural integration, and the 2nd half showing reduced connectivity and local intensity. Overall, this study provides actionable and targeted practical guidance and performance analysis. Coaches are encouraged to prioritize flank-area utilization through drills incorporating diagonal runs, wide-area link-up play, and rapid passing along the sideline, while promoting efficient ball circulation in the final third via small-sided and constrained training tasks.
The 'Get Trained, Save Lives' campaign by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and the European Resuscitation Council (ERC) was launched to raise awareness about sudden cardiac arrest and the importance of learning cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). All national football teams qualified for the EUROs 2024 and 2025 were offered 45 min of CPR training in the form of a 'GO and save A Life' (GOAL) session. This study aimed to assess whether high-quality CPR could be performed by players and staff of the Danish men's and women's national football teams following a GOAL session. As a part of the 'Get Trained, Save Lives' campaign, hopefully, this will help to inspire the public to get CPR trained. We collected data from a two-minute CPR quality assessment following GOAL sessions in June 2024 and June 2025. All players and staff of the Denmark national football teams were invited to participate in the study, with missing data as the only exclusion criterion. Participants were provided CPR manikins that recorded CPR quality metrics on chest compressions and rescue breaths. CPR quality scores were compared between male and female players, players with different field positions, and players and staff. We included 88 participants (24 male players, 23 female players, and 41 staff members). The results showed that 60 % of participants met compression rate recommendations, 93 % met compression depth recommendations, 90 % met chest recoil recommendations, 91 % met hands-off time recommendations, and 85 % met rescue breath recommendations.The combined CPR quality score was 90 points (range: 0-100 points). Female players achieved a slightly higher score than male players (95 vs. 84 points, p-value <0.05), while there was no significant difference in CPR quality scores between different field positions and between players and staff. The study showed that high-quality CPR was performed by players and staff of the Denmark men's and women's national football teams following GOAL sessions. As part of the 'Get Trained, Save Lives' campaign, this will hopefully inspire citizens to get CPR trained.
This study proposes a data-driven framework for classifying UEFA Champions League teams into possession-based and counterattacking styles and predicting match outcomes based on key performance indicators (KPIs). Dimensionality reduction via an autoencoder was combined with K-means clustering to identify underlying tactical patterns beyond traditional possession metrics. Feature selection was performed using LASSO, Boruta, and XGBoost to determine the most relevant KPIs. Predictive models, including Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), and LightGBM, were evaluated using AUC and F1 Score. SVM achieved the highest performance for possession-based teams, whereas KNN outperformed other models for counterattacking teams. The results revealed distinct style-specific performance profiles. For possession-based teams, higher possession and key passes correlated negatively with winning probability, while crosses and long-range shots were positively associated with success. In counterattacking teams, increased possession and key passes improved match outcomes, whereas crosses and shots from outside the box showed negative associations. Defensive actions, particularly clearances, were strongly associated with improved defensive stability and match success, especially among counterattacking teams. This framework improves the accuracy of tactical classification and provides interpretable associations between KPIs and match outcomes. The findings can inform style-specific tactical planning and performance monitoring, enabling coaches to adjust offensive or defensive training priorities according to team strategy.
Shoulder dislocation injuries may require prolonged recovery and absence from play, with risks of recurrent instability. The impact of shoulder dislocation on return-to-play (RTP) time and player performance in professional soccer athletes remains poorly defined. To determine the rate and timing of RTP, risk of recurrence, and player performance after shoulder dislocation in elite professional soccer athletes. Descriptive Epidemiology Study. Professional soccer athletes who sustained a shoulder dislocation between 2010 and 2024 across the 5 major European soccer leagues with a minimum 1-year follow-up were identified using publicly available records. Injured athletes were matched by position, age, height, season, experience, and preinjury minutes played and compared to uninjured controls. RTP rates, recurrence, field time, and performance up to 4 seasons after injury were assessed. A total of 118 soccer athletes with shoulder dislocations were included (38% defenders, 23% attackers, 20% goalkeepers, and 19% midfielders). Mean age at time of injury was 26.2 ± 4.2 years. Overall, 87% returned to the same level within 2 seasons after shoulder dislocation. Injured athletes missed a median of 68 days and 10 games, with goalkeepers missing more days (124 vs 60, P < .001) and games (21 vs 8, P < .001) compared to outfield players. Recurrence occurred in 18% at a mean time of 2.6 ± 2.4 years, with a higher risk in athletes ≤25 years (26% vs 12%, P = .046). By treatment, 59% and 41% underwent operative and nonoperative management, respectively, with similar recurrence rates (17.1% vs 18.8%, P = .823) but longer time to recurrence in the operative group (3.82 ± 2.91 vs 1.41 ± 0.69 years, P = .009). Injured athletes played significantly fewer games, total minutes, and minutes per game during the index season and at 1 and 2 seasons after shoulder injury compared with matched controls. However, performance metrics and RTP rates in all seasons after injury remained comparable to matched controls across all positions and treatment groups. Professional soccer athletes returned to play at a high rate and a median of 68 days after shoulder dislocation, with an 18% recurrence rate. Despite reduced field time for up to 2 seasons after injury, overall player performance and RTP were not adversely affected.
Our aim was to describe the absence days caused by the 30 most frequent injury diagnoses in elite European women's club football. Members of the medical staff in football clubs participating in the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Women's Elite Club Injury Study (WECIS) reported injury occurrences from a total of 72 team-seasons. Injury absence was defined as the number of days between injury occurrence and when the injured player was allowed to return to full participation by the medical team. In total, 2 390 injuries were registered and included in the study. Sixty-six per cent of these injuries were included among the 30 most common injury diagnoses. Most of the injuries included among the 30 most common were mild leading to a median absence of 7 days or less in 397 cases (23%) or moderate leading to a median absence of 7-28 days in 1177 cases (69%). Severe injuries accounted for a median absence of ≥28 days in 140 cases (8%) were less common and included only four diagnoses, all related to knee injuries. These four diagnoses, however, caused 35% of all absence during the study period. Most of the time lost due to injuries in elite European women's football teams results from moderate and severe injuries. This article provides guidelines for expected time-loss for the most common injury types in women's professional football and will aid clinicians to make more accurate estimations of when players can be expected to return to participation following injuries.
To compare injury incidences between the 2022/23 season and the preceding five seasons, and between World Cup players and non-World Cup players during the 2022/23 season. During the 2022/23 season, 29 teams participated in the Union of European Football Associations Elite Club Injury Study and reported football exposures and injuries prospectively. Injury incidence was compared with that of the five preceding seasons for the full season and for periods before and after the Fédération Internationale de Football Association World Cup 2022. In addition, World Cup players were compared with non-World Cup players. Incidences were compared using rate ratio (RR) with 95% CI. Injury incidences during the 2022/23 season were similar to previous seasons except for training incidence which, due to a significantly lower incidence in the 2017/18 season compared with all other seasons, was higher during the full season (RR 1.10, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.21) and in the period before the World Cup (RR 1.17, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.35). World Cup players had similar injury incidences before and after the tournament (training incidence; RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.65 to 1.38, match incidence; RR 1.15, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.52) but a significantly lower match incidence than non-World Cup players before the tournament (RR 0.84, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.00). No major changes in injury incidences were observed during the 2022/23 season compared with previous seasons. World Cup players experienced similar injury incidences before and after the tournament, and had a lower match injury incidence before the tournament compared with non-World Cup players.
Menstrual cycle tracking is increasingly recognised as an important aspect of supporting female athletes. However, its application in football remains inconsistent and under-researched. This consensus statement, initiated by the Union of European Football Associations Medical and Anti-Doping Unit, provides evidence-informed guidance on best practices for menstrual cycle tracking in women's football. Developed using the RAND-UCLA appropriateness method, the consensus involved a multidisciplinary expert panel that reviewed the literature and reached agreement on 82 statements across five key domains: the rationale for tracking, meaningful metrics, appropriate methods, implementation strategies and methodological considerations for research. The consensus underscores that while current evidence linking menstrual cycle phases to performance or injury risk remains inconclusive, tracking can support athlete well-being by identifying menstrual irregularities, managing symptoms and enhancing player education and autonomy. Practical recommendations are provided for measuring cycle characteristics, ovulation, hormonal profiles and symptoms, whereas ethical and cultural considerations are emphasised. This statement aims to promote standardised, athlete-centred tracking protocols and establish priorities for practice and future research in female football.
The present study aimed to construct a multidimensional performance profile of men's elite youth national teams from the 6 continental confederations (AFC, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, OFC, and UEFA) by examining physical, technical-tactical, spatial, and passing network characteristics at the 2023 FIFA U-17 and U-20 World Cups. Data from 174 match observations and 943 player observations were analyzed using mixed-effects models. At U-17, confederation-related differences were observed across physical, spatial, and passing-related domains. AFC players covered more total distance than CONMEBOL (P = .006, effect size [ES] = 1.55), while CAF players reached higher top speeds than OFC (P = .030, ES = 0.87) and showed greater team length in the middle and defensive thirds (mean difference [MD] = 3.55 to 10.19 m, P = .004-.040). UEFA showed stronger passing-related profiles than OFC, including higher pass and line-break completion (MD = 0.17 to 0.28, P ≤.005) and higher passing network density, global efficiency, and average clustering coefficient (MD = 0.08 to 0.16, P = .004-.036). At U-20, physical and most spatial differences were limited, whereas passing network differences persisted, with OFC teams showing lower density than all other confederations (MD = -0.17 to -0.11, P < .001-.018) and lower global efficiency than CONCACAF, UEFA, and CAF teams (MD = -0.09 to -0.08, P = .005-.012). Confederation-related profiles were more prominent at U-17 but became less evident in physical and spatial domains by U-20, whereas passing-related differences persisted and highlighted collective passing organization as an important feature of elite youth football development.
Physical performance demands in elite international football have evolved substantially in recent decades, yet longitudinal comparisons across FIFA confederations remain limited. This study examined long-term changes in physical performance demands among outfield players from five confederations (UEFA, CONMEBOL, CONCACAF, CAF, and AFC) using tracking data from 225 matches at the 2010-2022 FIFA World Cups. Generalised mixed linear models were used to estimate changes in total distance, top speed, sprint (>25 km·h ⁻ ¹), low-intensity running distance (<15 km·h ⁻ ¹), and high-intensity running distance (≥15 km·h ⁻ ¹), with confederation as the main factor and match status, location, and team and opponent strength controlled. Across confederations, substantial increases were observed in top speed, sprint, and low-intensity running distance from 2010 to 2022, indicating a uniform rise in speed-related demands. In contrast, changes in total distance and high-intensity running distance were confederation-specific. Total distance increased between 2018 and 2022 in AFC, CONCACAF, and UEFA, but showed no substantial change in CONMEBOL. High-intensity running distance declined in AFC, CONMEBOL, and UEFA, while changes in CAF were trivial. These findings indicate that speed-related demands have increased globally, whereas total and high-intensity running demands remain region-specific across FIFA World Cup editions.
Handball decisions in the penalty area remain one of the most controversial topics in professional association football, yet they are underexplored in sports science. The purpose of this research was to establish a foundation for understanding the controversy by examining its underlying causes. Two video-based studies quantified how key stakeholders interpret handball incidents and how closely these interpretations align with Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) guidelines. Study 1 involved referees active in German men's professional football (n = 154) who judged 30 incidents. Study 2 repeated the procedure with professional coaches (n = 31) and players (n = 46) using 18 incidents. Outcomes were Accuracy (accordance with UEFA), Strictness (percentage of incidents deemed punishable), Consensus (within- and between-group agreement), and Reasoning (primary reason for a decision). Referees reached 84.0% Accuracy, which differed by role, performance level, and handball category. Strictness among referees was lower compared to UEFA (42.9% vs. 50%). Coaches and players demonstrated lower Accuracy (63.8% and 67.5%) and Strictness (36.0% and 33.9%) than referees, resulting in significant differences in Consensus across Stakeholder Groups in 11 out of 18 incidents. Reasoning also diverged as referees preferred Naturalness, whereas coaches and players emphasised Avoidability and Impact. These findings reveal systematic differences between governing body guidelines, referee decision-making, and practitioner expectations. The results can inform educational measures and discussions on potential revisions to the handball law. Clearer and more objective criteria, jointly agreed by key stakeholders, are required to improve the consistency and acceptance of handball decisions.
To describe and analyse mechanisms of potential head injuries across a range of playing age-groups during women's European international tournaments and explore whether there were any 'coachable moments' which might prevent a similar incident from being repeated in the future. (NB 'coachable moment' was defined as a player action or behaviour that could be modified through coaching (i.e. it is considered modifiable).) METHODS: This mixed-methods video analysis study reviewed all potential head injuries from the broadcasted match footage from the 2022 UEFA European Women's Football Championship (WEURO), 2024 UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship (WU19), and 2024 UEFA Women's Under-17 Championship (WU17), including an in-depth independent analysis of 10 potential head injury events by 11 different coders (including professional women players and coaches) to identify any coachable moments. Across the three tournaments, there were 108 potential head injuries (WEURO n = 55, 52.08/1000 match hours (MH); WU19 n = 29, 57.31/1000 MH; WU17 n = 24, 45.45/1000 MH). Positionally, midfielders (excluding wingers) sustained the most potential head injuries (n = 32), followed by centre-backs (n = 26). The most frequently observed mechanism of a potential injury was opponent player-to-head impact (n = 74, 35.41/1000 MH), followed by unintentional ball-to-head impacts (n = 17, 8.13/1000 MH). Coachable moments were identified in all 10 events categorised into five themes: body positioning, awareness, communication, technique, and decision-making. The identification of coachable moments provides insight into player actions that may contribute to a higher potential head injury risk in women's football. These data could be used to support a player-centric injury prevention approach being embedded into the coaching ecosystem.
Women's football has experienced significant growth in sporting, economic, and social interest. However, there remains a shortage of studies examining key technical-tactical performance indicators in elite competitions. This research aimed to identify and quantify the influence of technical-tactical indicators on the effectiveness of offensive dynamic transitions in elite women's football, using a machine learning approach. To this end, 3,610 dynamic offensive transitions recorded across 35 matches from the final stages of the FIFA Women's World Cup 2023, UEFA Women's Euro, and UEFA Women's Champions League 2023/24 were analysed using an observational methodology. An ad hoc observation instrument, Transfootb, was developed to record teams' offensive behaviours, opponents' defensive responses, and the match context at the time of the offensive dynamic transition. A chi-square test was applied to identify associations between variables, followed by the training of a Random Forest model to predict transition outcomes. Additionally, ShAP values were computed and visualised to interpret the influence of the predictors. The model achieved an area under the curve of 0.78, with a recall of 18% and a specificity of 96%. The results indicate that the execution mode of offensive transitions and the match context significantly influence offensive success. Specifically, penetrating passes (≥ 3), counterattacks, and an opponent's low defensive positioning were the key predictors of successful offensive transitions. This study provides valuable scientific evidence to optimise strategic decision-making in dynamic offensive transitions in elite women's football. Furthermore, it highlights the potential of machine learning in analysing and predicting performance in sport-specific actions.
This dataset was collected during the UEFA EURO football championship in 2024. It provides match-contingent experience sampling data, including (a) individual-level variables such as life satisfaction, (b) interpersonal variables such as prosocial intent, and (c) broader societal variables such as political trust. The data points are nested in a sample of N = 1,012 individuals from five countries (England, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland). Using an event-sampling method with four to eight measurement waves (depending on how far the national team progressed in the tournament), we captured time-sensitive fluctuations in a total of m = 30 variables in response to the national team's objective (i.e., win, draw, loss) and perceived success. In addition, the dataset contains moderating variables including Big-5 personality traits, conspiracy and free-will beliefs, or alcohol consumption and betting behaviors, and detailed match-specific data (e.g., shots on target, yellow cards, attendance). Our data descriptor portrays the methodological approach, data collection procedures, and available variables, and outlines how the data may be used for future research.
This study aimed to investigate how score status and playing position affect the most demanding passages (MDPs) in elite women's football. Data from ten matches from eighteen outfield players of the Turkish Women's National Team were collected during UEFA Nations League fixtures in the 2024-2025 seasons. Players were monitored using wearable GPS sensors, and all locomotor variables were segmented into one-minute windows to identify peak demands. The analysed variables included total distance (TD), high-speed running (HSR), sprint distance (SD), high-acceleration distance (HIAccD), high-deceleration distance (HIDecD), high metabolic power distance (HMPD), and player load (PL). Generalised Estimating Equations (GEE) were used to assess the effects of score status and playing position. Wingers (WG) showed the highest TD, HSR, and HMPD values, while centre backs covered less TD and HSR than WG. Full-backs and forwards (FW) also recorded lower TD, although FW exceeded WG in sprinting (p = 0.045, d values = 0.66 [moderate effect]). Score status influenced MDPs, with TD decreasing when the match was tied and further declining when the team was behind; similar reductions occurred in HSR, HIAccD, HIDecD, and HMPD. In conclusion, both score status and position significantly shaped peak locomotor and mechanical demands. These findings may inform individualised training, recovery programmes, and score-dependent tactical planning in elite women's football.
In recent years, professional European football has experienced a substantial increase in player injuries, threatening athlete welfare, team performance and financial sustainability. Utilizing secondary analysis of epidemiological and financial data sets, this study analyses injury patterns, risk factors and economic impacts across the top five European leagues-Premier League, La Liga, Serie A, Bundesliga and Ligue 1-between the 2020/21 and 2023/24 seasons. Drawing on data from UEFA, FIFA and the Howden Group, the findings reveal a 37% increase in total injury incidence and a near-doubling of economic losses, exceeding €730 million in 2023/24 alone. Hamstring and soft-tissue injuries dominate, with young players (U21) showing the steepest rise in severity. Fixture congestion, inadequate recovery time and environmental factors such as surface conditions and travel fatigue are identified as key structural drivers. The findings suggest a need for coordinated governance reforms, including mandatory rest intervals, standardized medical protocols and centralized injury databases. The analysis indicates that sustainable football management should integrate player welfare as an economic and ethical priority to safeguard the sport's long-term integrity.
A previous study confirmed the existence of the relative age effect (RAE) in the top ten leagues of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) during the 2016-2017 season, reporting that the effect was particularly pronounced among defenders and midfielders. The present study investigates whether this effect persists. Specifically, it aims to examine the RAE among professional male footballers in UEFA's top ten leagues during the 2023-2024 season, and to explore how the effect varies by playing position and league. The study analysed the birthdates and playing positions of 5,238 professional footballers. Birthdates were categorised into four quartiles: Q1 (January 1 to March 31), Q2 (April 1 to June 30), Q3 (July 1 to September 30), and Q4 (October 1 to December 31), and were examined in detail by league and position. Players born in Q1 (30.3%) were overrepresented compared to those born in Q4 (20.5%) (χ² = 132.470, p < .05). This difference was statistically significant in most leagues, particularly in Serie A (χ² = 33.535, V = 0.14), Ligue 1 (χ² = 23.741, V = 0.11), LaLiga (χ² = 22.491, V = 0.12), and Bundesliga (χ² = 21.681, V = 0.12), but not in Premier League (χ² = 1.665, p = .645). In terms of playing position, the RAE was present across all groups (p < .05), with the most pronounced effect observed among goalkeepers (χ² = 40.006, V = 0.15). Positional RAE patterns varied across leagues: significant differences were found for goalkeepers in Serie A, Süper Lig, and LaLiga; for defenders in LaLiga and Jupiler Pro League; for midfielders in Serie A, Ligue 1, Süper Lig, and Eredivisie; and for forwards in Ligue 1, Bundesliga, and Scottish Premiership (p < .05). The findings indicate that the RAE persists in professional football within UEFA's top leagues. The effect is evident across all playing positions and varies by league context.
BACKGROUND: Small-sided games (SSGs) represent one of the most popular football-specific training methods; however, their capacity to replicate the external load demands imposed during official competitive matches requires systematic investigation across different formats and competition levels. METHODS: This retrospective observational study compared external load parameters derived from four SSG formats (4vs4 + 3, 8vs8 + 1, 9vs9 + 1, 10vs10) with official match data from twenty professional male footballers (age: 27 ± 5.47 years; body mass: 79.56 ± 8.34 kg; height: 182.30 ± 6.38 cm) competing in the UEFA Conference League, Super League, and National Cup. External load variables including total distance (m), high-speed running distance (> 19.8 km/h), sprint distance (> 25 km/h), high metabolic power distance (> 25 W/kg), acceleration (> 2 m/s²), and deceleration (> 2 m/s²) were collected using 10 Hz GPS technology across 12 weeks of training and official matches. RESULTS: Statistical analysis revealed that the 10vs10 format produced external load values comparable to National Cup matches for multiple parameters, while the 8vs8 + 1 format demonstrated similarity to both Super League and Conference League fixtures. Conversely, the 4vs4 + 3 format was insufficient for approximating match-related physical demands across all parameters examined (p < 0.001). Sprint distance exhibited an exceptionally large effect size (η²=0.968), reflecting the substantial limitation of all SSG formats in approximating match sprint demands. Furthermore, all SSG formats produced significantly elevated acceleration-deceleration values compared to official matches. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that larger SSG formats more closely approximate selected match demands total, high-speed running, high metabolic power), though all SSG formats underrepresent sprint distance and produce elevated acceleration-deceleration frequencies compared to official matches.