Advanced footwear technologies (AFT) are popular for their potential performance benefits, though concerns about injury risks persist. Among various AFT features, sole thickness is particularly debated, especially after World Athletics imposed a 40 mm limit to prevent unfair competitive advantages. However, the effects of sole thickness on running biomechanics and economy are not well understood, particularly because sole thickness often co-varies with other shoe characteristics in shoe designs. This review examines the effects of sole thickness on spatiotemporal variables, kinematics, kinetics, and running economy. The review focuses on studies in which sole thickness was the primary variable of interest. A systematic literature search was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. Eligible studies included original research on running with participants of all expertise levels, analyzing spatiotemporal variables, kinematics, kinetics, or running economy. Fourteen studies met the criteria, mostly focusing on male recreational or experienced runners. Thicker soles were linked to increased stance time, while other spatiotemporal parameters remained unchanged. Significant effects were seen in ankle kinematics, with more dorsiflexion at initial contact with thicker soles, though knee and hip movements were less affected. Thicker soles increased peak eversion in the frontal plane. No consistent trends emerged for joint kinetics, stiffness, or center of mass movement. Vertical ground reaction force (GRF) peaks remained largely unchanged, but loading rates generally decreased with thicker soles. Only one study assessed running economy, with no significant effects. Overall, the certainty of evidence across outcomes was low to very low due to methodological heterogeneity and limited study numbers. Thicker soles were largely linked to longer stance times and lower GRF loading rates. Future research should comprehensively report shoe characteristics, include more diverse populations (e.g., female runners, forefoot strikers), and expand investigations to underexplored aspects such as muscle activity and movement coordination.
This study aimed to describe the running power profile and intensity distribution of a world-class mountain runner across 3 competition formats differing in race duration and elevation gain. A male world champion was monitored during 3 official championship races: Spanish Vertical Championship (VR; 2.4 km, +929 m), World Sky Championship (SR; 38 km, ±2,750 m), and European SkyUltra Championship (SUR; 62 km, ±3,550 m). Running power was recorded at 1 Hz using a Stryd footpod. Maximal mean power output was calculated for durations from 1 second to 480 minutes, and the time spent within predefined power zones and critical power-based intensity domains was quantified. Comparisons with previously published subelite reference data were expressed as standardized Z-scores. Exercise intensity declined with increasing race duration, with higher mean power (5.1 W·kg-1) and greater relative time >4 W·kg-1 (44.9%) in the VR compared with SR (3.3 W·kg-1, 6.2%) and SUR (2.8 W·kg-1, 2.1%). The athlete showed very large maximal mean power output deviations (Z >+2) in the VR compared with subelite reference data, moderate differences in the SR, and small advantages for efforts ≤20 minutes in the SUR. Most race time was spent within 4 to 6, 3 to 5, and 2 to 4 W·kg-1 in the VR, SR, and SUR, respectively. World-class mountain running performance is characterized by superior power maintenance capacity and extended time at high relative intensities compared with subelite runners. Running power analysis can support the characterization of competition demands and individualized training prescription in mountain running.
This study examined the effects of resistance exercise versus interval running on post-exercise concentrations of bone metabolic markers in postmenopausal females. Thirteen physically active postmenopausal women (51 ± 3 years) completed this crossover trial consisting of two exercise modalities: an interval running protocol (8 × 3 min at 85% maximal aerobic speed) and an eccentric-based resistance protocol (10 × 10 parallel back squats at 60% 1RM). Blood samples were obtained at baseline and 24 h post-exercise. Dickkopf-related protein 1 (DKK-1), fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), osteocalcin, osteoprotegerin (OPG), parathyroid hormone (PTH), and sclerostin were analysed in serum. A mixed linear model was used to examine the main effects of exercise and time, and the Exercise × Time interaction. Significant Exercise × Time interactions were shown for osteocalcin (p = 0.015), OPG (p = 0.021), and sclerostin (p = 0.002), with higher concentrations 24 h after resistance exercise than following endurance exercise. A main effect of Exercise was detected for FGF-23 (p = 0.048), showing higher values in resistance exercise. Resistance and interval running exercise elicited distinct short-term bone metabolic responses in postmenopausal women. Twenty-four hours after exercise, resistance loading resulted in higher concentrations of total osteocalcin, sclerostin, and OPG, but not DKK-1, FGF-23 or PTH, compared with interval running. These findings show some upregulation of bone metabolic signalling after resistance exercise compared to interval running, although interpretation must remain cautious given that total osteocalcin and OPG do not directly reflect net bone formation or resorption.
Higher stiffness of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) has been reported to be associated with faster race time in 100-m sprint running. However, the association of muscle stiffness with spatiotemporal variables (i.e., step frequency, step length, flight time, stance time, flight distance, and stance distance), which are determinants of sprint running velocity, remains unknown. Thus, we aimed to elucidate the relationship between the passive/active stiffness of MG and spatiotemporal variables at the 50-60 m interval (maximal velocity phase) during 100-m sprint running. Using an ultrasound scanner (11 Hz), the shear wave velocity of MG in 21 male collegiate sprinters (100-m best race time: 11.03 ± 0.29 s) was measured at passive/active (during 20% and 50% of maximal voluntary isometric contraction [MVC] of plantar flexion) states as a proxy for muscle stiffness. Participants performed 100-m sprint runs, and their sprint running motion at the 50-60 m interval was recorded using a camera (240 Hz) to calculate spatiotemporal variables. The results showed that the shear wave velocity of MG at neither passive (0% MVC) nor active (20% and 50% MVC) states correlated with 100-m sprint time (r = 0.189, 0.331, 0.102, p = 0.620, 0.429, and 0.659, respectively) or any spatiotemporal variables (r = -0.264 to 0.422, p = 0.137 to 0.937). These results suggest the stiffness of MG might not be important for spatiotemporal variables of sprinters, at least with the performance level in this study.
The transition from purely time-based to criteria-based rehabilitation following knee joint surgery has led to the establishment of clinical and functional criteria for individual functions such as return to running. This narrative review aimed to extract recommended criteria from expert surveys and to present their predictive validity. The authors conducted a literature search in PubMed. Studies were included that surveyed therapists and/or physicians on current practice for criteria-based return to running. In addition, an analysis was performed on studies that evaluated the validity of these criteria in clinical trials involving patients who had undergone knee surgery. The literature search yielded data exclusively for patients who had undergone anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. In the expert surveys, the postoperative period (≥12-16 weeks) was the most consistently reported criterion. Furthermore, clinical (pain, swelling) and functional (mobility, balance tests, dynamic control tests, quadriceps strength testing) criteria are frequently recommended but lack sufficient validation. In the few validation studies available, many of the proposed criteria and their cut-off values demonstrated insufficient predictive validity. Only clinical parameters (pain 0-2 on the numerical pain scale and swelling), a sufficient range of motion (0° extension, 130° flexion) and sufficient quadriceps strength (limb symmetry index >60% + 1.45-1.6 Nm/kg) appear to be meaningful. Functional test batteries currently described in the literature and the corresponding target values for balance and jump testing should be viewed critically and require more rigorous evaluation in future studies. Until then, they do not provide valid guidelines for clinical decision-making regarding a safe return to running. Der Wandel von einer rein zeitbasierten hin zu einer kriterienbasierten Rehabilitation nach operativen Eingriffen am Kniegelenk hat dazu geführt, dass für einzelne Funktionen, wie z.B. dem Wiedereinstieg in Laufbelastungen, klinische und funktionelle Kriterien aufgestellt wurden. Ziel dieser narrativen Übersichtsarbeit war es, empfohlene Kriterien aus Expertenbefragungen zu extrahieren und deren prädiktive Validität darzustellen.Die Autoren führten eine Literaturrecherche in PubMed durch. Inkludiert wurden Studien, die Therapeuten und/oder Ärzte bezüglich der gängigen Praxis für einen kriterienbasierten Wiedereinstieg in Laufbelastungen befragten. Des Weiteren wurden Arbeiten analysiert, die die Aussagekraft dieser Kriterien in klinischen Studien bei Patienten nach operativen Eingriffen am Kniegelenk evaluierten.Die Literaturrecherche ergab ausschließlich Daten für Betroffene nach einer Rekonstruktion des vorderen Kreuzbandes. In den Expertenbefragungen wird dabei der postoperative Zeitpunkt (≥12.–16. Woche) am konsistentesten genannt. Darüber hinaus werden klinische (Schmerz, Schwellung) und funktionelle (Beweglichkeit, Balancetests, dynamische Kontrolltests, Krafttestung des Quadrizeps) Kriterien überbewertet. In den wenigen verfügbaren Validierungsstudien zeigen viele der aufgestellten Kriterien und deren Cut-offs eine unzureichende prädiktive Validität. Lediglich klinische Parameter (Schmerz 0–2 auf der numerischen Schmerzskala und Schwellung), ein suffizientes Range of Motion (0° Extension, 130° Flexion) und eine ausreichende Quadrizepskraft (Limb Symmetrie Index >60% + 1,45–1,6Nm/kg) scheinen eine Aussagekraft zu haben.Momentan in der Literatur beschriebene funktionelle Testbatterien und die entsprechenden Zielwerte im Bereich Balance und Sprungtestung sind kritisch zu sehen und sollten in zukünftigen Studien genauer überprüft werden. Bis dahin bieten sie keine verlässliche Direktive in der Entscheidungsfindung eines sicheren Wiedereinstiegs in Laufbelastungen.
BackgroundUltra trail running is an increasingly popular, yet physically and psychologically demanding sport, associated with a high risk of injury and illness.ObjectiveUnderstanding the epidemiology of these conditions is essential to enhance both athlete safety and performance.MethodsA narrative search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library for studies published in English between 2004 and 2024 using keywords including "ultra trail running," "ultramarathon," "injury," "illness," "epidemiology," and "risk factors.".ResultsA total of 18 were included. The findings were categorized into three primary areas. Musculoskeletal injuries, particularly involving the lower limbs, are the most frequently reported, often resulting from overuse, inadequate recovery, or suboptimal training adaptation. Medical complications such as acute kidney injury, gastrointestinal distress, and exercise-associated hyponatremia are also common, especially in prolonged or multi-stage events. Skin-related disorders, including blisters and abrasions, frequently contribute to performance decline or race withdrawal.ConclusionThe unique demands of ultra trail running, such as prolonged exertion, uneven terrain, extreme environmental exposure, and limited recovery time, contribute to the multifactorial nature of injuries and illnesses in this sport. A multidisciplinary approach involving individualized training, preventive strategies, and athlete self-management is essential. Improving our understanding of these challenges may help optimize prevention and management, ultimately enhancing both safety and endurance performance in ultra trail athletes.
Estimating internal forces at common injury locations may identify injury-prone runners but requires in-lab gait analysis. Consumer-grade wearable-sensors track key gait metrics, which may enable prediction of internal forces during real-world running. This study aimed to use gait metrics from consumer-grade wearable-sensors to predict Achilles tendon (AT) and patellofemoral joint (PFJ) forces during running. Fifty-five runners completed a 38-minute run at 70-125% of preferred speed on an instrumented treadmill while equipped with a consumer-grade foot-pod and chest strap. Motion capture data drove a scaled musculoskeletal model to estimate stance phase criterion AT force and PFJ contact force. Gradient-boosted regression trees were used to predict these forces from synchronously recorded wearable-sensor data. Several predictive models were compared against a baseline speed-only model using only sensor-based running speed to evaluate the added performance of incorporating additional sensor-based metrics. Compared with the speed-only model, the model incorporating sensor-based gait metrics (e.g., speed, stance time, vertical oscillation, leg stiffness) reduced mean absolute error (MAE) by 0.069 body weights (BW) for AT force (p = 0.003) and 0.039 BW for PFJ force (p = 0.036). Replacing these sensor-based metrics with motion capture-based counterparts further decreased MAE by 0.053 BW at the AT and slightly increased MAE by 0.005 BW at the PFJ. The model including a comprehensive set of motion capture-based gait metrics achieved the lowest MAE at both locations, further reducing MAE by 0.040 BW for AT and 0.110 BW for PFJ, suggesting improvements in sensor-based internal force estimates requires additional sensors to capture more gait variables.
In previous research, physiological resilience has been measured as deterioration of the physiological profile during prolonged exercise. This study aimed to evaluate the test-retest reliability of physiological resilience during prolonged moderate-intensity running. Physiological profile of 26 well-trained endurance runners (10 females) was tested in nonfatigued state as well as during and after two identical ∼2.5-h long physiological resilience tests at ∼89% of VT1 (ventilatory threshold 1) speed within an average period of 13 days. Reliability was assessed with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), coefficient of variations (CV%), and typical errors (TE and TE%). Change in maximal speed achieved in the incremental test (sPeak) was the most reliable metric and showed good reliability (ICC: 0.81 and TE: 1.8). The drifts in running economy (RE) and the heart rate (HR) had moderate to good reliability in the second half of the trial (ICC: 0.52-0.80 and TE 1.7-2.4). The changes in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and ventilatory thresholds (VTs) had poor reliability (ICC: 0.07-0.36 and TE: 3.5-4.6). However, the absolute values of these variables demonstrated good to excellent reliability in fatigued state (ICC > 0.83, TE% < 5.2%, and CV% < 4.1%) even though they significantly deteriorated. Determining changes in sPeak and drifts in RE and HR appears to be the most reliable method to measure physiological resilience. In contrast, measurement of the physiological profile remains reliable in fatigued state for every variable. Longer or more demanding protocols may be required to obtain greater reliability for deterioration of the physiological profile.
We aimed to investigate the effect of Sorbothane insole insertion and foot strike patterns on shock attenuation during running. Nine male students participated in the study. Running was performed on a 15 m runway at a constant speed of 3.33 m/s. Two types of insoles (EVA and Sorbothane) and two-foot strike patterns (forefoot and rearfoot) were used, creating four experimental conditions. The tibial acceleration and vertical ground reaction force (GRF) were measured, and their peak and loading rate were calculated. A two-way ANOVA (insole × foot strike pattern) was performed. Tibial acceleration showed no significant interaction. However, the peak and loading rate of vertical GRF were significantly higher in the rearfoot strike pattern. The Sorbothane insole significantly reduced the loading rate only in the rearfoot strike condition. Ankle joint angles showed differences depending on foot strike and insole type. These findings suggest that the foot strike pattern may has a greater influence on impact characteristics than the difference in insole material under the present conditions. While Sorbothane insoles may offer some benefits in reducing impact loading during rearfoot strike, further studies with larger sample sizes are required to confirm these effects.
Achieving meaningful and representative findings in cognitive/behavioural research requires both externally valid experimental settings and representative participant samples. Virtual reality (VR) has become a powerful tool for enhancing realism while maintaining control of experimental environments. Simultaneously, online testing broadens and diversifies samples. Combining these approaches-running VR experiments online-is compelling but remains challenging due to incompatibilities between tools used in lab-based VR studies and online testing. This paper offers a practical solution to bridge this gap. We provide a brief overview of current approaches to online VR experimentation and offer a step-by-step tutorial for converting lab-based VR studies into remote deployments using Unity and Steam. Further, we share an open-source onlineVR-toolbox-including code, example workflows, and practical Notebooks-to facilitate critical processes such as secure data transfer and participant management. To validate this approach, we present a proof-of-concept case study replicating a well-established memory effect. Our results demonstrate that remote data collection via Steam is technically feasible and yields results consistent with laboratory-based findings. Together, our tutorial, tools, and case study show that online VR studies are possible and practical, opening the door to more scalable, inclusive, and externally valid behavioural science.
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Glycosides represent 16.19% of natural products documented in the dictionary of natural products (DNP), forming a diverse group of secondary metabolites in various plant parts. Structurally, glycosides comprise sugar moieties and aglycones, playing crucial roles in biological systems including cellular stability, enzyme recognition, and defense mechanisms. They exhibit broad pharmacological properties, such as antiviral, antidiabetic, and anticancer effects, often mediated by glycosylation. The identification of glycosides is important for evaluating their potential toxicity and the health risks related to their consumption. Analytical techniques, including chromatographic and electrochemical methods, are central to identifying and quantifying glycosides in biological matrices. Several analytical techniques are examined, including spectroscopic, chromatographic, and electrochemical methods to quantify quercetin glycosides in various samples. UV-vis spectrophotometry is simple and cost-effective; however, it does not offer high selectivity. Chromatographic techniques such as HPLC and GC provide both selectivity and sensitivity, whereas electrochemical methods are known for their high resolution and low detection limits. This review aims to examine the methodologies for determining glycosides in various matrices, focusing on pharmaceutical and biological specimens. Moreover, this study also offers an analytical basis for the development and use of methods for analysing glycosides in real samples.
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Fatty acid oxidation (FAO) provides the healthy heart with 60%-90% of its ATP, with the remainder coming from metabolism of glucose. Metabolic flexibility is key to heart function, ensuring an uninterrupted source of fuel. In heart failure, a shift from FAO to glucose-dependent metabolism occurs as disease progresses, supporting the widely held notion that fat is the optimal substrate in the heart. In this issue of the JCI, Kim et al. challenge this assumption. In studies of acetyl-CoA carboxylase-deficient (ACC-deficient) mice, they found that unregulated use of fat as a substrate led to cardiac damage. ACC-deficient mice developed cardiolipin deficiency as a result of excessive FAO depleting stores of linoleic acid, which is used as a substrate for cardiolipin maturation. The resulting mitochondrial dysfunction was associated with dilated cardiomyopathy and heart failure in these mice. The findings highlight potential for development of therapeutic strategies that balance energy sources and replenish cardiolipin levels.
Pacing in long-distance triathlon has been studied primarily for cycling and running in IRONMAN triathlon and daily-format ultra-triathlons, as managing fatigue is critical for success. However, no study has analysed pacing across all three disciplines in an ultra-triathlon such as the second-longest non-stop triathlon format, the Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon covering 76 km swimming, 3600 km cycling, and 844 km running. This study examined pacing during a Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon by analysing split and lap times for all official male and female finishers. We assessed pacing patterns, the influence of pacing variability on performance, and whether faster performance was associated with more frequent moderate slowdowns or with fewer but more pronounced slowdowns. Official race data from the 2023 Swissultra Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon held in Buchs, Switzerland were analysed for 9 men and 4 women. Swimming splits were recorded manually, and both cycling and running splits were recorded via RFID timing. Variables included mean speed, checkpoint speed variability (ACCS), proportions of slow-down checkpoints (25-50%, 50-75%, > 75% slower than mean speed), and magnitude of slowdown. Athletes showed negative pacing in swimming (decreasing time) but an even or slightly positive pacing in both cycling and running. Running variability did not correlate with running speed. In swimming, faster athletes tended to show fewer relative slowdowns. In cycling, faster cyclists had fewer moderate but more pronounced slowdowns, while in running, faster runners showed more ≥ 75% slowdowns. In summary, higher performers maintained a relatively steady and fast baseline pace interspersed with occasional substantial slowdowns, rather than moving continuously at a slower and more variable pace. Because the timing data do not directly identify intentional rest, these slowdown patterns should not be interpreted as confirmed rest breaks.
Women are at increased risk of fecal incontinence (FI) due to pelvic floor dysfunction. Running, may further contribute to FI symptoms. The main aim of this study was to gain insight into the experiences of Dutch female recreational runners with FI during running. We conducted a qualitative study using semi-structured interviews. Participants, recruited through Facebook and running groups, were eligible if they had experienced FI symptoms during running for at least 3 months without FI in daily life. Interviews focused on personal experiences with FI related to running. Data were analyzed using thematic content analysis. Twenty-one participants, aged 31-72 years participated. Two themes emerged: Firstly, feelings and beliefs about FI described emotional responses, while some women expressed acceptance, others reported sadness. Barriers to seeking medical care included a lack of knowledge about treatment options, feelings of shame, and fear of not being taken seriously. Secondly, coping and adaptation strategies describe practical measures such as toilet mapping, carrying toilet paper or clean clothing, and wearing dark clothing. This study highlights the complex experiences of female runners dealing with FI and emphasizes the need for greater awareness, education, and support within the running community to effectively address this issue.
Ultra-endurance sports like running over several hours or days exhibit great physical, psychological and metabolic strain on the respective athlete. Although the impact of ultramarathon running on the inflammatory/immunological system gained interest in the last years, there is no study that examined the effect of different running distances on inflammatory/immune system responses. During a non-stop ultramarathon, blood and saliva samples were collected before (Pre) and after the race (Post), and analyzed for changes in blood cell variables (immune cells leukocytes/thrombocytes), cytokine response (pro- and anti-inflammation: IL-6/IL-10/IL-1ra/IL1-beta/TNF-alpha), and stress-related parameters (CRP as acute phase protein; uric acid for oxidative stress; cortisol/kynurenine for general stress and energy metabolism). Biomarkers were supplemented by a stress-related questionnaire and 1) analyzed for the whole group of finishers (N = 43; 16f/27m) and 2) compared between the respective running distances (100/160.9/230 km). Leukocyte and thrombocyte count increased Post in all runners, with a more pronounced leukocyte response observed in 100 km vs. 160.9 km. IL-6/IL-10/IL-1ra increased Post in all sub-groups, whereas IL1-beta decreased only in the whole group. Stress/immune response showed an increase of salivary cortisol and CRP in all runners. Sub-group analysis revealed highest cortisol and CRP concentrations in 230 km Post race. Ultramarathons differ in the physiological strain they impose, with running distance being an important factor. Especially 100 km (faster pace, shorter duration) and 230 km (slower pace, longer duration) runners exhibited distinct inflammatory/immunological responses. Thus, broad generalizations regarding the impact of a given ultramarathon on the immune system and potential post-race infection risk are unwarranted, and individualized guidance is currently more effective.