THIS ARTICLE1 is directed toward a definition of myth, legend, and folktale. These three very basic terms in folklore are loosely used and have sometimes been as hotly disputed as the nature of folklore itself. Definitions and classifications are neither particularly interesting nor necessarily fruitful, but if any field of study needs clarification of its basic terminology it is clearly folklore, which has so long been plagued by inconsistent and contradictory definitions. This article will contribute nothing, however, if it does not lead to some agreement among folklorists on these terms, whatever definitions may ultimately be accepted. I make no claim to originality in the definitions proposed here. On the contrary, one of the main arguments in support of them is that they conform to what students of the folklore of both nonliterate and European societies have found, as will be shown. I have found them meaningful in some twenty years of teaching and they seem so obvious and self-evident that I can only wonder at the disagreements which have arisen. Less conventional, but certainly not without precedent, is the proposal that these three important forms of folklore be considered as sub-types of a broader form class, the prose narrative. This provides a system of classification in which they constitute a single category, defined in terms of form alone, comparable to the form classes of proverbs, riddles, and other genres of verbal art.2 Prose narrative, I propose, is an appropriate term for the widespread and important category of verbal which includes myths, legends, and folktales. These three forms are related to each other in that they are narratives in prose, and this fact distinguishes them from proverbs, riddles, ballads, poems, tongue-twisters, and other forms of verbal on the basis of strictly formal characteristics. Prose narrative is clearly less equivocal for this broad category than because the latter has so often been used by folklorists to mean Mdrchen. Its adoption permits us to equate the English term folktale with the German term Mdrchen, as I do here, and thus to dispense with the latter. Many American folklorists, to be sure, employ the term Mdrchen in English because they use to include all of these three sub-types, but this is unnecessary, since prose narrative better serves this purpose. When the term prose narrative proves clumsy or inept, I suggest that be used as a synonym; this is admittedly more ambiguous, but one can appropriately speak of myths, legends, and folktales as tales, and its counterpart in German, Erzdhlung, is similarly used. I cannot recall how long I have been using the term prose narrative in my folklore course; but when or by whom it was introduced is of less significance than the recent trend towards its acceptance. Boggs used prose narrative to include myth, legend, and tale in his article on folklore classification (I949),3 it has also been used in this sense by Davenport in discussing Marshallese folklore (I953), and by Berry in discussing West African spoken art (I96I). Folklore as Prose Narrative is the title of the second chapter of the Clarkes' recent text book (I963) . One may also cite the Herskovitses'
Digital Literary Studies presents a broad and varied picture of the promise and potential of methods and approaches that are crucially dependent upon the digital nature of the literary texts it studies and the texts and collections of texts with which they are compared. It focuses on style, diction, characterization, and interpretation of single works and across larger groups of texts, using both huge natural language corpora and smaller, more specialized collections of texts created for specific tasks, and applies statistical techniques used in the narrower confines of authorship attribution to broader stylistic questions. It addresses important issues in each of the three major literary genres, and intentionally applies different techniques and concepts to poetry, prose, and drama. It aims to present a provocative and suggestive sample intended to encourage the application of these and other methods to literary studies. Hoover, Culpeper, and O'Halloran push the methods, techniques, and concepts in new directions, apply them to new groups of texts or to new questions, modify their nature or method of application, and combine them in innovative ways.
In this commented anthology of Latin prose, Michael von Albrecht selects texts from a span of Roman literature covering four centuries. A summary of the contents will indicate its range and variety: M. Porcius Cato (the preface to De agricultura, a passage from the speech for the Rhodians of 167 B.C., and a section from the Origines ); republican oratory (C. Gracchus, from De legibus promulgatis of 122 B.C. and Cicero from In Verrem II ); Caesar as orator and historian; two passages of Sallust; a comparison of Claudius Quadrigarius and Livy as historiographers; philosophical texts from Cicero and the Younger Seneca; and chapters on Petronius, Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Apuleius. The method of the book is practical, based on actual interpretation of specific texts rather than on literary theory (ancient or modern). Each text (printed first in Latin and then in English) is followed by a detailed and flexible discussion, somewhere between essay and commentary. No set pattern is imposed - rather the nature of the text governs the shape of its analysis - but Professor von Albrecht's vivid scholarly exposition covers most dimensions of the art of Latin prose-writing. The book's variety of texts and close treatment of specific Latin passages make it an ideal coursebook for the study of Latin prose. But behind its accessibility lies scholarship of the highest order: Professor von Albrecht's exemplary erudition reveals itself in the extensive annotation underpinning his main text; and researchers in any of the fields covered by Latin prose-writers - philosophy, politics, history, letters, practical handbooks, entertainment - will find this book a valuable resource. This book was originally published in German ( Meister romischer Prosa von Cato bis Apuleius, 1971). It has been accurately and sympathetically translated by Neil Adkin.
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When individuals read or listen to prose they try to understand what it means. This is quite obvious. However, the cognitive mechanisms that participate in prose comprehension are far from obvious. Even simple stories involve com plexities that have stymied many cognitive scientists. Why is prose comprehen sion so difficult to study? Perhaps because comprehension is guided by so many domains of knowledge. Perhaps because some critical mysteries of prose comprehension reside between the lines-in the mind of the comprehender. Ten years ago very few psychologists were willing to dig beyond the surface of explicit code in their studies of discourse processing. Tacit knowledge, world knowledge, inferences, and expectations were slippery notions that experimental psychologists managed to circumvent rather than understand. In many scientific circles it was taboo to investigate mechanisms and phenomena that are not directly governed by the physical stimulus. Fortunately, times have changed. Cognitive scientists are now vigorously exploring the puzzles of comprehension that lie beyond the word. The study of discourse processing is currently growing at a frenetic pace.
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The journal of Sir Walter Scott.--Recollections of Professor Jowett.--Robert Herrick.--John Webster.--Beaumont and Fletcher.--Social verse.--Wilkie Collins.--Whitmania.--Tennyson or Darwin?--Les Cenci.--The posthumous works of Victor Hugo: Theâtre en liberté. La fin de Satan. Choses vues. Les jumeaux. Notes of travel: Alps and Pyrenees. Notes of travel: France and Belgium. Dieu. Toute la lyre
Introduction 1. Classicism as orthodoxy Han Yu 2. The individual in history Liu Tsung-yuan 3. The return to universality Ou-Yang Hsiu 4. A theory of perception in art Su Shih Conclusion Glossary Notes Selected bibliography Index.
A presentation is given of Meyer's (1974) system for analyzing the organization of information in textual materials. This system is based on Fillmore's (1968) case grammar and Grimes' (1974) semantic grammar of propositions. In addition, the need for such a technique in educational research and practice is pointed out, as well as, comparing Meyer's system to that of three different approaches to prose analysis. Also, the use of the structure of prose in two studies on reading and memory is described. Implications of this structural variable are discussed for other investigations into reading.
BROWN, ANN L., and SMILEY, SANDRA S. Rating the Importance of Structural Units of Prose Passages. A Problem of Metacognitive Development. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1977, 48, 1-8. 20 subjects at each of 4 age levels (8, 10, 12, and 18) rated the linguistic units of prose passages in terms of their importance to the structure and theme of the passages as a whole. There was considerable agreement among independent groups of college students and seventh-grade children concerning these importance ratings, but thirdand fifth-grade subjects were unable to differentiate items in terms of their relative importance to the text. Recall of the text material was determined by the adults' ratings of structural importance. At all ages, the units judged most important dominated recall attempts, while the least important units were rarely recalled. The failure of the younger children to identify the important elements of the text suggests a problem of metacomprehension that could be a contributing factor to their poor study habits.
Book Review| March 01 1972 Preaching to the Exiles: A Study of the Prose Tradition in the Book of JeremiahUntersuchungen zur sogenannten Baruchschrift Preaching to the Exiles: A Study of the Prose Tradition in the Book of Jeremiah.Untersuchungen zur sogenannten Baruchschrift, E. W. Nicholson and G. Wanke. Burke O. Long Burke O. Long Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Journal of Biblical Literature (1972) 91 (1): 101–102. https://doi.org/10.2307/3262927 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Tools Icon Tools Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Burke O. Long; Preaching to the Exiles: A Study of the Prose Tradition in the Book of JeremiahUntersuchungen zur sogenannten Baruchschrift. Journal of Biblical Literature 1 March 1972; 91 (1): 101–102. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3262927 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All Scholarly Publishing CollectiveSBL PressJournal of Biblical Literature Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright 1972 Society of Biblical Literature1972 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal Issue Section: Book Reviews You do not currently have access to this content.
Book Review| March 01 1967 Paul, the Man and the Myth: A Study in the Authorship of Greek Prose Paul, the Man and the Myth: A Study in the Authorship of Greek Prose, A. Q. Morton and James McLeman. John J. O’Rourke John J. O’Rourke Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Journal of Biblical Literature (1967) 86 (1): 110–112. https://doi.org/10.2307/3263256 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Twitter Permissions Search Site Citation John J. O’Rourke; Paul, the Man and the Myth: A Study in the Authorship of Greek Prose. Journal of Biblical Literature 1 March 1967; 86 (1): 110–112. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3263256 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All Scholarly Publishing CollectiveSBL PressJournal of Biblical Literature Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright 1967 Society of Biblical Literature1967 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.
This article examines some strategies in the formation of the authorial personal voice in medieval Persian prose until the second half of the 7th/13th century. It studies four metaphors found in the prefaces to a range of prose compositions. The metaphors include a widely spread ‘a book as a bride’ simile; book as merchandise, book as a garden, as well as likening a book to a newborn. The subtle images of embellishing, cherishing, and procreation suggest the process of ‘bringing forth one's own’ and thus legitimize the authors' ownership of their works.
AbstractThe temporary closure of all educational institutions as an effort to prevent the spread of an outbreak of Covid-19 worldwide has an impact on millions of students, including in Indonesia. Disturbances in the teaching and learning process directly between teacher and students as well as the termination of the assessment of learning have an impact on the psychological of students, causing a decrease in the quality of skills. This burden is the responsibility of all elements of education, in particular the government, in facilitating the continuity of schools for all stakeholders in education to conduct distance education. How should Indonesia plan, prepare for and overcome co-recovery 19, to reduce the loss of education in the future.Keywords: Covid-19, school, Stakeholders, Indonesia AbstrakPenutupan sementara lembaga pendidikan sebagai upaya menahan penyebaran pendemi covid-19 di seluruh dunia berdampak pada jutaan pelajar, tidak kecuali di Indonesia. Gangguan dalam proses belajar langsung antara siswa dan guru dan pembatalan penilaian belajar berdampak pada psikologis anak didik dan menurunnya kualitas keterampilan murid. Beban itu merupakan tanggung jawab semua elemen pendidikan khususnya negara dalam memfasilitasi kelangsungan sekolah bagi semua steakholders pendidikan guna melakukan pembelajaran jarak jauh. Bagaimana mestinya Indonesia merencanakan, mempersiapkan, dan mengatasi pemulihan covid 19, untuk menekan kerugian dunia pendidikan di masa mendatang.Kata Kunci; covid-19, sekolah, steakhorders pendidikan, Indonesia
The ProSeal™ laryngeal mask airway (PLMA) (Laryngeal Mask Company, Henley-on-Thames, UK) is a new laryngeal mask device with a modified cuff and a drainage tube (1). Preliminary trials have shown that the PLMA forms a more effective seal than the standard laryngeal mask airway (LMA) during a static oropharyngeal leak test and isolates the respiratory tract from the gastrointestinal tract when correctly positioned (1,2), but there is no evidence that it is a better ventilatory device. In the following randomized, cross-over trial, we tested the hypothesis that the PLMA is a more effective ventilatory device than the LMA in healthy anesthetized females at 8 and 12 mL/kg tidal volume with the cuff semi- or fully inflated. Methods We studied 30 consecutive female patients (ASA physical status I-II, 18–80 yr) undergoing nonintraabdominal gynecological surgery. Ethical committee approval and written informed consent were obtained. Patients were excluded if they had respiratory tract pathology, were at risk of aspiration, or were taking medication that might trigger bronchospasm. The ventilator and anesthesia circuit were tested for leaks before use by connecting them to an artificial lung and recording the difference between inspired and expired tidal volume over 20 breaths at similar tidal volumes to those used in patients. Patients were induced with fentanyl 2 μg/kg and propofol 2.5 mg/kg. Maintenance was with propofol 6 mg · kg−1 · h−1 in 30% O2 and air. A single experienced PLMA/LMA user (>100/1500 uses) inserted/fixed each device in random order according to the manufacturer’s instructions (3,4). The PLMA was inserted using the introducer tool (4). Patients were ventilated (Evita 4; Draeger Medizintechnik GmbH, Luebeck, Germany) for 10 min at the following 4 tidal volume/cuff volume settings in random order: 1) tidal volume 8 mL/kg, cuff volume 15 mL; 2) tidal volume 8 mL/kg, cuff volume 30 mL; 3) tidal volume 12 mL/kg, cuff volume 15 mL; 4) tidal volume 12 mL/kg, cuff volume 30 mL. The respiratory rate, inspiratory:expiratory ratio, and inspiratory flow rate were fixed at 15 breaths/min, 1:1, and 30 L/min respectively. Measurements were made during/ after surgery with the patient in the lithotomy position. The ventilator compliance was 2 mL/cm H2O and the pneumotachograph was connected directly to the proximal end of the airway tube. Airway pressure was measured at the pneumotachograph. The CO2 sampling port was sited above the flow transducer. Failed oxygenation and ventilation were defined as an inability to maintain oxygen saturation ≥95% at an inspired oxygen concentration of 33% and an inability to maintain end-tidal carbon dioxide ≤45 mm, respectively. The following data were recorded by an unblinded observer once every 20 s for the last 5 min for each tidal volume/cuff volume setting and the average reading taken: peak airway pressure, inspired tidal volume, expired tidal volume, pulmonary compliance, oxygen saturation, end-tidal carbon dioxide, and heart rate. Mean arterial pressure was measured using a noninvasive blood pressure monitor at the start and end of the 5-min period and the average value was taken. Leak fraction was calculated by subtracting expired from inspired tidal volume. Epigastric auscultation was performed to detect air entering the stomach (5). Oropharyngeal leaks were detected by listening over the mouth with an ear (6). Drainage tube leaks were detected by placing a clear lubricant in the proximal 1 cm of the drainage tube and noting whether bubbling occurred during ventilation (2). When these measurements were complete, oropharyngeal leak pressure (6) and fiberoptic position (7) were determined at 15 mL and 30 mL cuff volume in random order. The alternative randomized device was then inserted and data collection repeated. Sample size was based on a cross-over pilot study of 5 patients and was selected to detect a projected difference of 33% in leak fraction at 12 mL/kg between the devices for a type I error of 0.05 and a power of 0.9. The distribution of data was determined using Kolmogorov-Smirnov analysis. Statistical analysis was with one-way analysis of variance with Bonferroni post hoc test for multiple comparisons paired and χ2 test. Significance was taken as P < 0.05. Results The mean (range) age, height and weight were 41 (19–61) yr, 163 (150–172) cm and 61 (50–74) kg respectively. Ventilator and circuit leaks were always <1 mL at the preuse test. All PLMA and LMAs were inserted at the first attempt. Leak fraction was always lower for the PLMA (by 0.3–0.6% at 8 mL/kg, P < 0.001; and by 2.0–2.1% at 12 mL/kg, P < 0.0001), but otherwise respiratory mechanical and cardiorespiratory data were almost identical. Gastric insufflation was not detected with either device. Audible oropharyngeal leaks were not detected with either device at 8 mL/kg tidal volume but were more commonly detected with the LMA at 12 mL/kg tidal volume (15 mL cuff volume: 8/30 v 1/30, P = 0.01; 30 mL cuff volume: 7/30 v 1/30, P = 0.02). Drainage tube leaks were not detected. Oropharyngeal leak pressure was higher for the PLMA at 15 mL (29 ± 7 vs 20 ± 3) and 30 mL (36 ± 6 vs 21 ± 3) cuff volumes (all P < 0.0001). The median fiberoptic position was higher for the LMA at 15 mL (3.1 vs 2.7) and 30 mL (3.3 vs 2.7) cuff volumes (both P < 0.02). Failed oxygenation and ventilation did not occur with either device. Discussion The LMA and PLMA are equally effective ventilatory devices at 8 mL/kg and 12 mL/kg tidal volume with the cuff semi- or fully inflated (Table 1). We selected these values for tidal volume and cuff volume to represent the range of values used in clinical practice. The manufacturer currently recommends a tidal volume of up to 8 mL/kg for the LMA (3) and the PLMA (4). We recommend 12 mL/kg for healthy female patients. The leak fraction was always higher for the LMA. This is primarily related to the LMA having a less effective seal than the PLMA, because peak airway pressures (hence, resistance to gas flow) were similar. The oropharyngeal leak pressure was 9–15 cm H2O higher for the PLMA; this confirms previous findings (1). The fiberoptic score was higher for the LMA because there was less epiglottic downfolding; this also confirms previous findings (2). The differences in leak fraction, oropharyngeal leak pressure and fiberoptic position were of no clinical significance because oxygenation and ventilation were unimpeded, gastric insufflation did not occur, and hemodynamic variables were similar. Interestingly, an audible oropharyngeal air leak was often not heard despite a gas loss of up to 15 mL. Perhaps this is the limit of audible detection of oropharyngeal leak.Table 1: Pulmonary Mechanical and Cardiorespiratory Data for the Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA) and ProSeal Laryngeal Mask Airway (PLMA) at 8 and 12 mL/kg Tidal Volume (TV) and With the Cuff Semi- and Fully InflatedOur study has a number of limitations. First, we studied healthy patients with normal lungs. In situations where higher peak airway pressures would be required, such as intraabdominal/intrathoracic surgery, in morbidly obese patients, or in patients with restrictive lung disease, it is possible that the PLMA would be a superior ventilatory device because of the better seal. Second, we only studied female patients; the results might not be applicable to males. Finally, the PLMA was inserted by an experienced LMA/PLMA user. Our data may not necessarily apply to the inexperienced user. We conclude that the PLMA and LMA are equally effective ventilatory devices in healthy female patients at tidal volumes of 8 and 12 mL/kg with the cuff semi- or fully inflated, but leakage of small volumes of air from the mouth occurs more frequently with the LMA.
The second volume of the Complete Prose Works may be taken as a consolidation of the aims and methods of this eight-volume edition being produced by Professor Don M. Wolfe and his associates. The editors seek to provide: (1) texts with fuller bibliographical and textual apparatus than the Columbia edition has and in some cases (e.g., The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce) to distinguish the text of a first edition from the extensive enlargements of a second; (2) elaborate introductions which deal amply and minutely with Milton's diverse subjects and his ideas, evolution, historical background, etc.; (3) full annotation on all topics, allusions, etc., so that, as far as it is possible, readers of varying degrees of sophistication have immediately available the material needed for either intelligent comprehension or for scholarly study.
BACKGROUND: The ProSeal laryngeal mask airway (PLMA) is a new laryngeal mask device with a modified cuff to improve seal and a drainage tube to provide a channel for regurgitated fluid and gastric tube placement. In the present randomized, crossover study, the authors tested the hypothesis that ease of insertion, airway sealing pressure, and fiberoptic position differ between the PLMA and the standard laryngeal mask airway (LMA). For the PLMA, we also assess ease of gastric tube placement and the efficacy of an introducer tool. METHODS: Sixty paralyzed, anesthetized adult patients were studied. Both devices (only size 4) were inserted into each patient in random order. Airway sealing pressure and fiberoptic position were determined during cuff inflation from 0 to 40 ml in 10-ml increments. Gastric tube insertion was attempted with the PLMA if there was no gas leak from the drainage tube. In 60 additional patients, ease of insertion for the PLMA was compared with and without an introducer. RESULTS: First-time success rates were higher (60 of 60 vs. 52 of 60; P = 0.003) and the effective airway time shorter (9 +/- 3 s vs20 +/- 18 s; P < 0.0001) for the LMA. There were no failed uses of either device within three attempts. Airway sealing pressure was 8-11 cm H2O higher for the PLMA at all cuff volumes (P < 0.00001) and was higher in females for both devices. Fiberoptic position was better with the LMA at all cuff volumes (P < 0.00001), but vocal cord visibility was similar (LMA, 59 of 60; PLMA, 56 of 60). For the PLMA, gastric tube placement was successful in 58 of 58 patients and took 9 +/- 5 s. First-time success rates were higher (59 of 60 vs53/60; P = 0.03) and the effective airway time shorter (15 +/- 13 s vs 23 +/- 18 s; P = 0.008) with the introducer. CONCLUSION: The PLMA is capable of achieving a more effective seal than the LMA and facilitates gastric tube placement, but it is more difficult to insert unless an introducer tool is used. When correctly positioned, the PLMA isolates the glottis from the upper esophagus with possible implications for airway protection.