The chemical composition and macromolecular architecture of amphiphilic block copolymers govern their self-assembly behavior in aqueous solution. Although a wide range of block chemistries and polymer architectures has been investigated, the influence of architecture on key properties of self-assembled structures, including polymersome membrane thickness, remains insufficiently understood. The increasing availability of well-defined block copolymers with diverse architectures provides an opportunity to systematically evaluate architectural effects by direct comparison with linear analogues of comparable composition. In this study, poly(trimethylene carbonate-b-sarcosine) (P(TMC-b-Sar)) copolymers with AB linear diblock, ABA linear triblock, and AB2 miktoarm star architectures were synthesized by ring-opening polymerization, and their self-assembly in aqueous solution was characterized using electron microscopy and light scattering techniques. Copolymer architecture was found to significantly influence the morphology and size distribution of the resulting self-assembled structures. In particular, AB2 miktoarm star copolymers formed polymersomes over a broader range of hydrophilic PSar weight fractions and hydrophobic PTMC block lengths than their AB linear counterparts. Furthermore, AB2-derived polymersomes were more abundant in the smaller size range and exhibited measurably thinner membranes than AB-derived polymersomes with similar PTMC block lengths. We also demonstrate that residual PTMC homopolymer impurities generated during synthesis of certain AB2 copolymers substantially alter vesicle morphology by promoting the aggregation of smaller vesicles. These findings demonstrate that both block copolymer architecture and the controlled presence of homopolymer impurities play important roles in governing block copolymer self-assembly and should be carefully considered in the design of polymersome-forming materials.
The overuse and improper disposal of important chemicals such as biomolecules, antibiotics, and pesticides have become serious global problems, creating an urgent need for simple and effective methods to remove them quickly from the environment. To address this issue, two mixed-ligand Cd(II) coordination polymers (CPs), {[Cd(H3L)(bb)2]n} (1) and {[Cd5(L)2(Bid)3(H2O)4]·4H2O}n (2), incorporating the multicarboxylate ligand H5L (H5L = 3,5-di(2',4'-dicarboxylphenyl)benzoic acid) and the N-donor linkers bb (bb = 4-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-4'-bromo-biphenyl) and Bid (Bid = 1,4-bis(1-imidazolyl)-2,5-dimethylbenzene), were constructed under solvothermal conditions. Detailed structural and physicochemical characterization was carried out using FT-IR, PXRD, TGA, UV-vis spectroscopy, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. CP 1 demonstrates excellent photocatalytic activity toward the UV-induced degradation of the antibiotic metronidazole (MDZ), achieving 95.32% degradation within 60 min. Radical-trapping experiments confirm that superoxide radicals (˙O2-) are the predominant reactive species involved in the degradation mechanism. Overall, these results suggest that structurally adaptable Cd(II) coordination polymers are promising photocatalysts for the removal of emerging pharmaceutical pollutants from aqueous environments.
PEGylationlinking of poly-(ethylene glycol) (PEG) to a nanocarrier or active pharmaceutical ingredient to achieve stealth propertiesis a key technology of nanomedicine. However, PEG has been shown to induce the formation of anti-PEG antibodies, motivating the search for alternative polymers for conjugation with nanocarriers. Recently, the concept of randomized PEG (rPEG), random copolymers of ethylene oxide and glycidyl methyl ether (GME), was introduced. These polymers are structural isomers of PEG with potential for manifold biomedical applications. To investigate their phase behavior in aqueous solution, a series of rPEGs with systematically varied monomer ratios were synthesized. Turbidimetric determination of the cloud point temperatures ( T cp ) was applied to study macroscopic lower critical solution temperature behavior. Paralleling these measurements, local nanophase separation was investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) using amphiphilic spin probes to address two key questions: (i) polymer hydration at nanoscopic level and (ii) to determine the temperature at which the onset of the collapse of the polymer chains occurs. The results reveal no phase separation below 96 °C for copolymers of a GME content of 35 mol % and less (26 and 0 mol % GME), while for GME content exceeding 40 mol %, cloud points of 70 °C-96 °C were observed. Comparison of both methods shows good accordance between the cloud points determined by turbidimetry and EPR with the exception of poly-(glycidyl methyl ether) (PGME), for which EPR showed a lower T cp by 5-10 °C. Combining the results with literature data, a model could be established that gives insight into the nanoscopic processes and allows for an approximation of the macroscopic cloud point temperatures in dependence of the GME content. Excellent aqueous solubility of all samples could be demonstrated in the physiological temperature range, satisfying the requirements for biomedical applications.
Halting the progression of neurodegenerative diseases remains one of the foremost challenges in medicinal chemistry due to the complex biology that drives disease progression. For example, a hallmark of synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease, is the misfolding and aggregation of the protein α-Synuclein (α-Syn), driving the formation of toxic oligomers and fibrils that avoid natural intracellular clearance mechanisms, participate in unusual protein-protein interactions, and ultimately contribute to the death of dopaminergic neurons. The field of targeted protein degradation (TPD) has emerged as an innovative therapeutic route to selectively degrade proteins of interest that leverage natural intracellular protein degradation machinery. First generation TPD therapeutics have traditionally been designed as bifunctional, chimeric compounds in which a short covalent linker tethers a ligand designed to bind target proteins to a ligand that initiates an either proteosome- or lysosome-dependent protein degradation cascade. While initial studies have indicated the promise of these approaches, translation to the clinical setting has been challenging due to difficulties in achieving cellular internalization, long-term stability, and establishment of a generalizable strategy. To overcome these obstacles, this work has focused on adding modularity and dynamic capability to this classical model by leveraging a multivalent macromolecular approach to TPD. Specifically, peptide amphiphiles (PAs) were designed to self-assemble into high-aspect-ratio supramolecular nanofibers and present peptide epitopes on the surface of the fibers to target simultaneous binding of α-Syn and recruitment of enzymes that facilitate entry into the lysosome-dependent chaperone-mediated autophagy protein degradation pathway. In vitro application of these bioactive PA nanofibers has demonstrated the ability to independently internalize in cells and reduce α-Syn protein levels selectively and effectively. While further optimization of this model has the potential to be a viable therapeutic against α-Syn aggregation, the modularity of these supramolecular nanofibers through facile monomer design and incorporation illustrates the potential of establishing a platform technology for targeting a diverse range of pathologic proteins.
Fluorescent stains for lignified plant walls must operate in chemically heterogeneous, autofluorescent matrices while remaining compatible with confocal multiplexing. Here, we evaluated two canonical Ru(ii) tris-polypyridyl luminophores, Ru1 ([Ru(deeb)3]2+) and Ru2 ([Ru(phen)3]2+), as non-derivatizing stains for fixed Arabidopsis thaliana stem sections. In situ spectral profiling defined practical 405-nm confocal detection windows, and both probes produced reproducible wall-associated photoluminescence enriched in secondary-wall-rich vascular domains, especially xylem vessels and interfascicular fibers. Their anatomical distribution showed qualitative concordance with Wiesner/Mäule lignin histochemistry and condition-validated Safranin O maps, supporting their use as spatial reporters of matrix-associated enrichment within anatomically defined lignified secondary-wall territories. The molecular determinants of this enrichment, including the relative contribution of lignin and other wall polymers, remain to be resolved. Sequential co-staining with Calcofluor White separated broad β-glucan-rich wall architecture from Ru-enriched secondary-wall domains, while spectral-overlap analysis identified far-red Alexa Fluor 647 excitation at 638 nm as the most orthogonal tested third-label configuration. Ligand-comparative DFT descriptors provided structure-property fingerprints summarizing differences in π-surface continuity and electrostatic anisotropy. Overall, these results position canonical Ru(ii) polypyridyl luminophores as confocal-compatible, chemically tractable scaffolds for anatomical imaging of lignified plant-wall territories.
Water-soluble polymers commonly interact with cell membranes, but their interactions are poorly understood. Here, we investigate polyethylene glycol (PEG) and dextran (DEX) interactions with different model lipid membranes. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, we observe that PEG and DEX trigger strikingly different membrane responses - DEX induces extensive membrane remodeling, including localized multilamellar domain formation, while PEG does not. Combining fluorescence spectroscopy, fluorescence anisotropy, and vibrational sum frequency spectroscopy, we show that DEX perturbs lipid headgroup hydration by displacing interfacial water with minimal effects on lipid packing, while PEG largely preserves this hydration layer. We find that membrane binding affinity alone does not determine the extent to which hydrophilic polymers perturb membrane structure and interfacial properties; and that lipid headgroup hydration, rather than lipid charge, is a general regulator of hydrophilic polymer-membrane interactions. This work gives mechanistic insights into how neutral polymers interact with cells and vesicles, with relevance to cell biology and drug delivery.
Covalent adaptable networks (CANs) offer a compelling strategy to unite the mechanical robustness of thermosets with the reprocessability of thermoplastics, yet achieving simultaneous durability, processability, and true recyclability remains challenging. We introduce diketoenamine (DKE) vitrimers derived from β-triketone methacrylate monomers and demonstrate how rational monomer design dictates network processability, viscoelasticity, and recyclability. By systematically varying the spacer length between the β-triketone (TK) moiety and the polymer backbone, we identify a key structure-property relationship that dictates vitrimer behavior. Networks bearing TK pendants minimally displaced from the backbone suppress creep but exhibit limited stress relaxation, whereas extended spacers yield lower glass transition temperatures, higher effective crosslink densities, and efficient stress dissipation, enabling optical transparency and reprocessability. Extending this platform to ultra-high molecular-weight prepolymers introduces physical entanglements as secondary crosslinks, further enhancing dimensional stability without compromising processability. Both mechanical and chemical recycling validate the closed-loop circularity of these materials. These results establish TK methacrylates as a versatile platform for designing high-performance vitrimers that integrate durability, reprocessability, and true closed-loop recyclability.
Polyphosphazenes are a unique class of polymers, notable for their versatile functionalization and distinctive properties arising from their alternating phosphorus-nitrogen backbone. However, the synthesis of their primary precursor, poly(dichlorophosphazene) ([NPCl2]n), is notoriously delicate and poorly understood, limiting broader adoption. Herein, we reinvestigate the controlled polymerization of Me3Si─N═PCl3 using quantum mechanical calculations to elucidate its underlying mechanism. Guided by these insights, we optimized the experimental conditions and achieved significantly higher molecular weights than previously reported for this polymerization route. Polymerization occurs at ambient temperature only upon addition of a cationic initiator, such as Ph3PCl2, yielding [NPCl2]n chains of varying lengths. Experiments and DFT calculations indicate that initiation proceeds via three key steps: (i) dissociation of Ph3PCl2 into [Ph3PCl]+ and Cl- ions, dependent on the reaction medium; (ii) nucleophilic attack of Cl- on Me3Si─N═PCl3, producing [N═PCl3]- and eliminating Me3SiCl; (iii) reaction of [N═PCl3]- with [Ph3PCl]+ to form Ph3P─NPCl4, which dissociates to generate additional reactive species, propagating chain growth. The elimination of Me3SiCl, concurrent with [N═PCl3]- formation, constitutes the rate-limiting step. Accordingly, this type of polymerization can be described as a chloride-catalyzed cationic process. These findings provide a detailed mechanistic understanding of poly(dichlorophosphazene) formation and offer a basis for optimizing reaction conditions to achieve controlled polymerization.
Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) require analytical methods that can handle chemically complex matrices while addressing both efficacy-oriented constituent analysis and safety-oriented contaminant monitoring. Electrochemical sensors have attracted growing interest in this area because they offer low-cost instrumentation, short analysis time, and compatibility with portable formats, but their practical value depends on more than nominal sensitivity. This critical review evaluates recent progress in electrochemical sensing of bioactive constituents and contaminants in TCM-related matrices, with an emphasis on analytical performance, matrix adaptability, and real-sample validation. Representative constituent studies include simultaneous determination of baicalin and baicalein over 0.01-400 µM, with explicitly paired detection limits of 0.056 nM for baicalein and 0.49 nM for baicalin, and recoveries of 93.65-101.52%, as well as portable chlorogenic acid sensing with a 6.2 nM detection limit in herbal materials. Representative contaminant studies include glyphosate monitoring in TCM samples with an 8.8 × 10-10 M detection limit and 94.47-112.23% recoveries, Hg2+ sensing in Sanqi with an electrochemiluminescence detection limit of 0.27 pM, and ochratoxin A detection in medicinal-edible malt with a detection limit of 0.08 ng mL-1. Across the literature, molecularly imprinted polymers, nanocomposite interfaces, paper-based devices, and dual-mode transduction strategies have all shown analytical promise. However, matrix validation, comparator-method benchmarking, pretreatment transparency, and reproducibility reporting remain far less consistent than detection-limit reporting. The field is therefore most likely to advance not through ever-lower LODs alone, but through more standardized, application-oriented electrochemical methods for authentic TCM matrices.
Lightweight and multifunctional aerogel films have emerged as promising candidates for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and infrared (IR) stealth. However, current pore structures are mostly random, and achieving the construction of oriented porous layer structures remains a challenge. Herein, the MXene/sodium alginate (SA) films with ordered porous structure are fabricated via long-channel wet spinning combined with confined freeze-drying. The slit channels generate a stable shear field that induces ordered alignment of MXene nanosheets, while Ca2+-triggered ionic crosslinking of SA and interfacial coupling with MXene ensure robust structural stability. Confined freeze-drying further creates interlayer pore channels without disrupting the layered orientation. This oriented porous architecture prolongs electromagnetic wave dissipation pathways and reduces effective thermal conductivity, enabling simultaneous EMI shielding and IR stealth enhancement. When the content of MXene is only 50 wt%, the aerogel films achieve an EMI shielding efficiency of 65 dB across X, Ku, and K bands, alongside a low thermal radiation temperature of 76.87 °C under a 150 °C background. Additionally, favorable Joule heating and photothermal conversion capabilities are demonstrated, highlighting potential for personal protection and multi-scenario applications. This work offers a scalable strategy for designing oriented porous structures toward integrated EMI shielding and IR camouflage materials.
Interface engineering and electronic modulation are key strategies for developing efficient and durable electrocatalysts for sustainable hydrogen production. Herein, we report a hybrid electrocatalyst prepared by integrating cobalt phosphate (CoPi) and polyaniline (PANI) onto a nickel cobalt phosphide (NiCoP) matrix to enhance the alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Co--N coordination was confirmed by XPS analysis, while density of states analysis revealed an upward shift in the Co d-band center from -1.11 to -1.03 eV following hybridization. This electronic modulation facilitated rapid charge transfer and strengthened interfacial electronic coupling, thereby accelerating HER kinetics through the conductive PANI framework. As a result, the CoPi/PANI@nickel-cobalt phosphide heterostructure delivers a low overpotential of 115 mV at 10 mA cm‒ 2 and a Tafel slope of 123.85 mV dec‒ 1, following the Volmer-Heyrovsky mechanism for efficient H2O dissociation and (H*) adsorption. The catalyst also demonstrates long-term electrochemical durability in alkaline media. This study highlights a versatile and scalable approach for designing multifunctional heterostructure electrocatalysts through polymer--assisted interface modulation for sustainable hydrogen generation.
Stretchable and self-adhesive epidermal electrodes and sensors with long-term stability are highly desirable for wearable applications. These electrodes and sensors typically comprise multiple components, each contributing distinct mechanical and electrical functions. However, their materials design and optimization rely heavily on time-consuming trial-and-error approaches, highlighting the need for a more effective strategy. Here, we report a data-driven composition optimization strategy integrating artificial neural network (ANN) modeling and genetic algorithm (GA) optimization for the rational design of self-adhesive epidermal electrodes/sensors. By defining optimization objectives that prioritized either high electrical conductivity and adhesion or high piezoresistive sensitivity, stretchable epidermal electrodes and sensors were developed. The optimized electrode exhibits high stretchability (∼ 177%), robust adhesion (0.10 N cm- 1), and low skin electrode contact impedance (∼ 72 kΩ at 10 Hz), enabling more stable long-term acquisition of electromyograms (EMG), electrocardiograms (ECG), and electroencephalograms (EEG) signals, compared to commercial Ag/AgCl gel electrodes. The resulting optimal sensor based on a different material composition demonstrates large stretchability (∼ 153%) and good piezoresistive sensitivity (gauge factor ∼ 4.79), enabling motion monitoring and human-machine interface demonstrations. This work highlights the effectiveness of data-driven optimization for application-specific design of wearable devices.
The enzymatic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to glucose remains a bottleneck for cost‑effective biofuel production, largely due to the complexity and expense of enzymes. Here we describe BsEG2, a multifunctional GH5‑like endoglucanase cloned from Bacillus sp. strain BS and heterologously expressed. BsEG2 displays optimal activity at pH 6.0 and 55°C and efficiently hydrolyzes both amorphous and crystalline cellulose. Kinetic analysis on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) indicates high substrate affinity and catalytic efficiency. Unlike typical endoglucanases, BsEG2 combines processive endoglucanase activity with broad substrate specificity. It degrades long cellulose chains and oligosaccharides and also shows β‑glucosidase‑like activity on cellobiose, yielding glucose across a wide range of chain lengths. BsEG2 is highly thermostable (a half-life of ~15 days at 55°C), tolerant of high salt and ionic liquids, and notably resistant to cellobiose inhibition up to 200 mM. It remains active in seawater, suggesting potential to reduce freshwater demand in biomass processing. These properties, namely, multifunctionality, stability, inhibitor tolerance, and halotolerance, make BsEG2 a strong candidate for simplified, cost‑effective enzyme formulations for glucose production from lignocellulosic feedstocks.
Targeted protein degradation (TPD) has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape of cancer therapy. TPD aids in avoiding cellular malfunction by recruiting the protein of interest (POI) into intracellular degradation machinery. The proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) degradation hijacks the protein's disposal system and co-opts ubiquitin E3 ligase to degrade disease-associated proteins. Numerous PROTACs have come to the forefront in cancer therapy, and several are in clinical trials. PROTACs are on the verge of U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. However, the low bioavailability, inadequate delivery, non-specific biodistribution, and systemic toxicity are impairing their clinical potential. Nano-PROTACs have implications for precisely targeting intractable proteins. This review provides insights into the realm of cellular mechanisms of nano-PROTACs, especially for targeting bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4), programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). How stimuli-responsive linkages are introduced in polymeric nanoparticles to aid the controlled release of PROTACs is discussed. We provide a glimpse of how advanced polymer- and peptide-based nano-PROTACs degradation is being combined with photoimmunotherapy, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy to broaden the impact of cancer therapy. Opportunities and challenges of current strategies are discussed to preclude major limitations in clinical translation. The integration of nano-PROTACs with potentially curative therapeutic modalities may broaden the clinical performance of PROTACs.
Targeted therapy using myosin inhibitors represents a groundbreaking advancement in the management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). This study conducts a comprehensive bibliometric analysis to map the research landscape indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection, identify key trends, and evaluate the scientific impact of myosin inhibitor studies from 2016 to 2025. We systematically retrieved publications from the Web of Science Core Collection using predefined search terms related to myosin inhibitors and HCM. Utilizing VOSviewer software, CiteSpace, and R-Bibliometrix Package, we performed co-authorship, co-citation, and keyword co-occurrence analyses. Bibliometric indicators (e.g., publication volume, citations, h-index) were employed to assess research productivity and influence. This bibliometric analysis encompassed 379 publications (2016-2025) on myosin inhibitors for HCM, showing exponential growth. The United States dominated research output (37% of total publications), followed by Italy (30 publications) and Germany (14 publications). Leading institutions included the University of Pennsylvania (39 publications, 1585 citations) and Bristol Myers Squibb (32 publications). Journal of the American College of Cardiology emerged as the top publishing venue (16 papers, 937 citations). Key researchers were identified: Olivotto I (most productive, 40 papers, h-index = 16), Saberi S (most cited, 1957 citations), and Sehnert AJ (highest impact, h-index = 16 with 27 papers). Three research phases were evident: mechanistic (2016-2018), clinical translation (2019-2021), and personalized therapy (2022-2025), with AI applications showing 4.2% annual growth. Citation networks showed that foundational studies (e.g., Green et al, 2016) were frequently cited by subsequent clinical research, reflecting a temporal citation pattern in which earlier mechanistic publications were frequently referenced by later clinically focused studies. This study presents a descriptive bibliometric overview of publication patterns for myosin inhibitor research in HCM, describing the publication patterns and collaborative networks that characterize this field. While North America and Europe lead productivity, global collaboration gaps persist. Future research should prioritize real-world evidence, combination therapies, and equitable knowledge dissemination. These findings offer strategic insights for researchers, funders, and policymakers advancing targeted HCM therapies.
Recurrent urinary tract infections are among the most frequent bacterial infections in adult women and are associated with impaired quality of life, like repeated medical consultations, and cumulative exposure to antibiotics. In the context of increasing antimicrobial resistance, non-antibiotic preventive strategies have attracted growing attention. Cranberry products remain one of the most commonly used and most extensively studied options. The aim of this review was to summarize current evidence regarding the efficacy, safety, and practical role of cranberry products in the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections in adult women. Contemporary guidelines, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and randomized clinical trials indicate that cranberry products may reduce recurrence risk, particularly in women with recurrent uncomplicated cystitis. However, cranberry should not be regarded as a single uniform intervention. The clinical effect appears to depend on formulation, proanthocyanidin content, and duration of administration. Preparations providing at least 36 mg of proanthocyanidins daily seem to offer the most consistent benefit, whereas non-standardized products yield heterogeneous and less reliable results. Cranberry products are generally safe and well tolerated, although adherence may be affected by palatability, pill burden, or uncertainty regarding product composition. Overall, cranberry may be considered a reasonable non-antibiotic prophylactic option for selected adult women, provided that counseling includes realistic discussion of expected benefits, limitations of the evidence, and the importance of using standardized preparations.
Recycling of rare metals with lower environmental burden is increasingly required. Herein, we report that an azobenzene ligand selectively complexes specific metal species through mechanochemical reactions among multiple metal species. We established a one-pot grinding method comprising acid-mediated chlorination of indium oxide (In2O3) to InCl3 (Step 1), followed by mechanochemical metal complexation with an azobenzene ligand to afford a functional luminescent azobenzene-indium complex (AzInCl) (Step 2). The reaction is facilitated by the presence of H2O/pyridine, which promotes quantitative complexation (>99%) with a stoichiometric amount of hydrochloric acid (HCl). In addition, we achieved high indium selectivity from the mixture of In2O3 and tin (IV) oxide (SnO2) by exploiting the differences in chemical reactivity of In2O3 and SnO2 toward acid (Step 1) and chemical stability between the resulting indium and tin complexes (Step 2), while the mechanochemical process provides an efficient reaction field for heterogeneous solid-state complexation with minimal solvent use. Finally, from an indium tin oxide (ITO) substrate, AzInCl was selectively obtained as the main product, with indium reaction rate of 79% even in the presence of other metal species. These results should be the potential approach for realizing a foundational technology for selective metal recycling and upcycling via complexation.
While natural infections expose the immune system for days to weeks of inflammation and antigen presentation, immunizations with conventional bolus vaccines often lead to rapid clearance of antigens and adjuvants. Prolonged exposure to vaccines using controlled delivery devices or repeated dosing regimens has been shown to enhance germinal center reactions, leading to improved humoral responses, including increased magnitude of antibody titers and enhanced neutralizing activity. Herein, we report the use of injectable polymer-nanoparticle (PNP) hydrogels as a vaccine depot technology for sustained delivery of the clinically relevant SARS-CoV-2 Hexapro subunit antigen and a toll-like receptor agonist adjuvant. In mice, we demonstrated that PNP hydrogel vaccines enhanced germinal center responses and antibody responses relative to bolus vaccination. In nonhuman primates, hydrogel vaccines induced enhanced and durable antibody responses against wildtype and variants of concern such as Omicron BA.5 compared to bolus vaccination. We report the first use of a biomaterials-based approach for sustained delivery of vaccines in nonhuman primates, further advancing toward clinical translation.
Our Emerging Investigator Series features exceptional work by early-career nanoscience and nanotechnology researchers. Read Jake McClements's Emerging Investigator Series article 'Unlocking interstitial fluid for acute coronary syndrome diagnosis: ultrasensitive troponin I detection using imprinted polymer nanoparticles' (https://doi.org/10.1039/D5NH00441A) and read more about him in the interview below.
Biosensors are pivotal for detecting foodborne and waterborne hazards due to their portability, low cost, and rapid response. However, performance often degrades in real samples, where complex matrices reduce sensitivity and specificity and increase false positives/negatives. This systematic review synthesizes recent advances in biosensor platforms for monitoring contaminants in food and water, emphasizing how matrix properties govern analytical reliability and field usability. We present a matrix-first benchmarking perspective that compares biosensor performance across low-biomass waters, high-organic wastewater, and complex food extracts (high fat/protein, high particulate load, acidic, or high-salt), and summarizes dominant interference modes (fouling, nonspecific binding, ionic-strength shifts, and optical turbidity) alongside practical mitigation workflows (dilution/filtration, cleanup extraction, antifouling coatings, and microfluidic preconcentration). Beyond bacteria and viruses, this revision integrates pesticides as a third hazard class, covering enzyme-inhibition, aptamer, immuno-, and molecularly imprinted polymer sensing strategies, with representative case studies including glyphosate/AMPA, paraquat/diquat, chlorpyrifos, and atrazine. Overall, the matrix-first framework highlights design and workflow choices most likely to translate biosensors from proof-of-concept to deployable, multi-hazard monitoring tools for food and water safety.