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Pollen analysis is a crucial tool for reconstructing past vegetation and ecosystems. Until now, pollen analysis has been a time-consuming manual process, severely limiting the number of records an analyst can produce and their temporal resolution. Recently, automatic approaches based on artificial neural networks have shown potential for classifying multiple pollen types. These approaches performed well with clean, modern reference material, but not with real-world fossil pollen samples from, for example lake sediments. To overcome this limitation, our TOFSI approach uses two neural networks to first detect and then classify pollen and other objects. Here, we apply the approach, for the first time, to a long lake sediment sequence at a very high resolution of 1 cm. To this end, a model has been trained to recognise 48 pollen, spore and NPP classes. Our approach performs excellently for the classes that are well represented in the training data. At the 0.5 confidence level, the automatic recognition achieves a recall and precision of at least 0.9. However, performance tends to decline for classes with fewer than ~100 training objects. We conclude that, when suitable images and model training are provided, TOFSI can accurately detect and classify multiple pollen, spores and NPP classes in lake sediment samples. The approach hence allows fully automated analysis when limited taxonomic resolution is sufficient. When full taxonomic resolution is required, TOFSI can be used in a semi-automatic approach involving manual revision of critical objects. Both approaches substantially reduce analysis times, while the resulting count sums and, consequently, the statistical reliability of the results are often much higher. Besides improved productivity, an image-based workflow could offer palynologists several practical improvements, including simplified student training and communication between researchers. Extended documentation and long-term storage of results may improve the standardisation of pollen counts. Die Pollenanalyse ist ein wichtiges Werkzeug zur Rekonstruktion von Vegetationen und Ökosystemen in der Vergangenheit. Pollenanalysen werden bisher ausschließlich manuell durchgeführt. Sie sind sehr zeitaufwändig: Die Anzahl der Proben, die eine Person bearbeiten kann, ist daher sehr beschränkt. Jüngste Arbeiten zeigen, dass automatische Verfahren auf Basis künstlicher neuronaler Netze durchaus zahlreiche Pollentypen unterscheiden können. Allerdings liefern diese Verfahren bisher gute Ergebnisse nur mit sauberem, modernem Referenzmaterial, nicht mit realen fossilen Pollenproben, beispielsweise aus Seesedimenten. Für eine bessere Erkennung kombiniert unser TOFSI‐Ansatz zwei Netzwerke – das erste detektiert zunächst Pollen, Sporen und andere Objekte, das zweite klassifiziert dann die gefundenen Objekte. Hier wenden wir den Ansatz erstmals an Proben aus Seesedimenten, mit einer sehr hohen Auflösung von 1 cm, an. Dazu wurde ein Modell für die Erkennung von 48 Pollen‐, Sporen‐ und NPP‐Klassen trainiert. Die manuelle Überprüfung der Ergebnisse und der Vergleich mit einem manuell gezählten Pollendiagramm vom gleichen Standort zeigen eine sehr gute Erkennung für alle Klassen, die in den Trainingsdaten zahlreich vertreten sind. Bei einem Konfidenzniveau von 0.5 liegen precision und recall über 0.9. Bei Klassen mit weniger als ~100 Trainingsobjekten ist die Erkennung schlechter. Mit geeigneten Bildern und einem passend trainierten Modell kann TOFSI zahlreiche Pollen‐, Sporen‐ und NPP‐Klassen in Seesedimenten mit hoher Genauigkeit erkennen und klassifizieren. Der Ansatz ermöglicht somit eine vollautomatische Analyse, wenn eine begrenzte taxonomische Auflösung der Analysen ausreichend ist. Wenn eine vollständige taxonomische Auflösung erforderlich ist, kann TOFSI in einem halbautomatischen Ansatz verwendet werden, bei dem kritische Objekte manuell überprüft werden. Beide Ansätze reduzieren die nötige Arbeitszeit erheblich, während die resultierenden Pollensummen und damit die statistische Zuverlässigkeit der Ergebnisse oft viel höher sind. Neben einer höheren Produktivität hat eine Bild‐basierte Arbeitsweise weitere Vorteile. Sie vereinfacht die Ausbildung von Studierenden und die Kommunikation zwischen Forschern. Sie erleichtert die Dokumentation und die langfristige Speicherung von Ergebnissen. Damit ermöglicht sie eine besseren Standardisierung der Pollenanalysen. Darüber hinaus ist diese Arbeitsweise schonender für die Augen.

Based on a 6-year longitudinal monitoring of specific immunoglobulin E (sIgE) responses to common ragweed (Ambrosia, Ambrosia artemisiifolia) and mugwort (Artemisia, Artemisia vulgaris) pollen allergens, this study systematically analyzed the sensitization trends of these two prevalent aeroallergen sources. The findings aim to provide evidence-based references for effective screening, early prevention, and targeted intervention in high-risk populations. This study retrospectively analyzed the test results of 2798 patients who underwent both common ragweed pollen-sIgE and mugwort pollen-sIgE testing at Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital from January 2020 to December 2025. It explored the sensitization characteristics of these two allergens across different time periods, age groups, and genders and performed a comparative analysis of their sensitization profiles. The case volume peaked in 2025, followed by 2022. The positive rates of common ragweed and mugwort pollen-sIgE exhibited a decreasing trend from 2020 to 2024, yet rebounded in 2025. The highest positive rate was observed in the 6-15 years age group, with the overall positive rate showing a downward trend as age increased. The number of male patients was significantly higher than that of female patients (&#x3c7;2&#x2009;=&#x2009;15.22, p < 0.01). Moreover, the positive rates of common ragweed and mugwort pollen-sIgE were significantly higher in males than in females (common ragweed: &#x3c7;2&#x2009;=&#x2009;9.17, p < 0.01; mugwort: &#x3c7;2&#x2009;=&#x2009;15.22, p < 0.01). Among all positive cases (n&#x2009;=&#x2009;673), 91.23% were sensitized to mugwort pollen allergens, 64.19% to common ragweed pollen allergens, and 55.42% to both allergens. For patients with dual positivity to common ragweed and mugwort pollen allergens (n&#x2009;=&#x2009;373), the detection levels of mugwort-specific IgE were significantly higher than those of common ragweed-sIgE (p < 0.01). In 2025, the positive rates of common ragweed pollen-sIgE and mugwort pollen-sIgE in the Beijing area exhibited a rebound trend. Positive rates of common ragweed and mugwort pollen-sIgE decreased with increasing age, whereas they were significantly higher in males than in females. Mugwort pollen allergens demonstrated stronger allergenicity than common ragweed pollen allergens; nevertheless, the two allergens showed highly consistent sensitization trends. These findings also corroborate the cross-reactivity between common ragweed and mugwort pollen allergens documented in the literature. However, further investigations are warranted to characterize the specific cross-reactive components and to develop novel diagnostic reagents.

Cross-pollination is crucial for commercial plum production, as pollen sources influence pollen tube growth and fruit set. However, the precise mechanisms underlying pollen-pistil interactions remain poorly understood. This study aimed to systematically investigate the dynamic physiological, hormonal, and transcriptomic responses of 'Fengtang' plum pistils following pollination with five distinct pollen sources. Five pollination combinations, including high-compatibility pollens ('Fenghuang', 'Siyue', and mixed pollen) and low-compatibility pollens ('Yinhong' and self-pollen), were established. 'Fengtang' pistils exhibited distinct temporal and multi-level responses dependent on pollen source. Physiological analyses revealed that highly compatible pollen induced rapid metabolic mobilization and a robust activation of antioxidant enzymes during the early stages of pollen tube elongation (24-48&#xa0;h after pollination). Conversely, low-compatibility and self-pollinated pistils exhibited prolonged oxidative stress, characterized by delayed antioxidant responses and higher malondialdehyde accumulation. Hormonal profiling demonstrated the involvement of auxins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid in modulating pistil responses. Higher compatibility correlated with improved hormonal balance. Comparative transcriptomic analysis revealed significant transcriptional reprogramming orchestrating these divergent responses. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were significantly enriched in plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signaling, starch and sucrose metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis, and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. Furthermore, weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified hub transcription factors (e.g., ORR21, C3H27, ERF34) as potential regulators mediating these post-pollination pistil responses. Our integrated analysis indicates that pistils can differentially respond to pollen sources through coordinated changes in ROS homeostasis, metabolic status, and hormonal signaling, and provides a candidate framework for understanding compatibility-related responses in fruit tree reproduction.

Developed using the GRADE methodology, these EAACI guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations on the effectiveness of pollen reduction/avoidance strategies for allergic rhinitis (AR) and asthma, the utility of biomarkers for monitoring pollen-induced asthma and the efficiency of mitigation measures and of public health strategies. Systematic and narrative reviews and health economic analysis support the recommendations. According to GRADE, the certainty of evidence was moderate to very low, therefore conditional recommendations are provided to guide healthcare professionals, patients, and policymakers in developing personalized, preventive, and scalable interventions. Reducing/avoiding exposure to pollen should be recommended to reduce the risk of severe asthma exacerbations. Lung function decrease and exhaled nitric oxide increase may be predictive for pollen-induced asthma exacerbations. Real-time pollen monitoring and pollen concentration-based forecast may be recommended for managing pollen-induced AR and/or asthma. Pollutant information should be included in pollen information systems. Combined forecast (weather, pollen, pollutants) and warning systems might reduce the impact of thunderstorm asthma (TA). Emergency department/asthma-related services should be strengthened during pollen season and in TA. Personalized frameworks covering the types and allergenic potential of pollen, the coaggressors and the vulnerability of each patient are needed in daily practice. The fundamental role of prevention should be further prioritized.

The homotypic fusion and vacuolar protein sorting (HOPS) complex plays a crucial role in vacuole biogenesis and sexual reproduction in plants. VPS33, a core component of this complex, is essential for pollen germination and pollen tube elongation. However, the regulatory mechanisms controlling VPS33 expression in pollen tube remain unclear. In this study, we identified PbrGPL1, a GeBP/GeBP-like (GPL) family transcription factor, as a potential regulator of PbrVPS33 expression in pear (Pyrus bretschneideri). Evolutionary analyses across 43 plant species revealed that GPL genes emerged after the colonization of land plants and subsequently expanded under strong purifying selection. In pear, most PbrGPL proteins localize to the nucleus, with several members exhibiting distinct subnuclear localization patterns. Expression analyses showed that PbrGPL genes are responsive to PEG-induced hyperosmotic stress in pollen tubes, with PbrGPL1 and PbrGPL9 displaying pollen-specific expression. Functional assays demonstrated that PbrGPL1 negatively regulates pollen tube growth. Furthermore, PbrGPL1 binds to the promoter of PbrVPS33 and activates it in dual-luciferase reporter (DLR) assays. However, suppression of PbrGPL1 promotes pollen tube elongation without significantly reducing PbrVPS33 expression, indicating that the role of PbrGPL1 in pollen tube growth is not solely dependent on the PbrVPS33 pathway. Collectively, these findings suggest a complex regulatory relationship between PbrGPL1 and PbrVPS33 during pollen tube growth and provide new insights into GPL-mediated transcriptional regulation in pear.

Pollen fertility is a key factor affecting yield in maize (Zea mays), but the mechanism underlying this trait in natural accessions is poorly understood. Here, we performed quantitative trait locus mapping and identified the candidate gene ZmCALS5 encoding a callose synthase as controlling maize pollen fertility. A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within the ZmCALS5 promoter (-756A/C) influenced the ZmCALS5 expression level and the content of callose, a pollen component essential for maize pollen fertility. This SNP-756A/C lies within the binding site for the transcription factor ZmABI4, which directly binds and represses ZmCALS5 expression. ZmABI4 is a negative regulator of callose accumulation and pollen fertility. The SNP-756C allele was found at high frequency in teosinte but rarely occurred in modern maize. Genetic diversity analysis demonstrated that ZmCALS5 exhibits decreased nucleotide diversity, which might suggest a potential selection signature during maize domestication and improvement. Collectively, this study establishes a new paradigm for the research of maize pollen development, revealing that ZmABI4 represses ZmCALS5 expression, thereby negatively regulating callose accumulation and pollen fertility. These findings provide a new paradigm for maize pollen development and uncover a valuable natural allele variation for maize breeding.

Airborne pollen, an aeroallergen, impacts human health, particularly as climate change shifts pollen dynamics, requiring accurate monitoring to support public health interventions. The present study utilizes evanescent wave scattering microscopy (EWSM) for label-free identification of airborne pollen. EWSM provides unique scattering signatures for various particles based on morphological characteristics. Bright-field (BF) microscopy offers limited pollen morphological details (spines, muri, and perforations); EWSM effectively visualizes these details and is used for the first time to identify airborne pollen. Two-stage semi-supervised framework is implemented for the identification and classification of pollen particles. Three models (YOLOv8n, YOLOv8l, and RT-DETR) were selected for the purpose of pollen localization; RT-DETR was selected as the stage 1 detector due to its 82.3% recall rate. Classification was performed using an EfficientNetB0 architecture. "Human-in-the-loop" label refinement was implemented in two phases. Phase 1 improved the F1 score from 0.277 to 0.537 for 41 species (80% recall). Phase 2 consolidated these species into 19 morphological groups with a precision of 0.648, a recall of 0.744, and an F1-score of 0.693, optimizing detection thresholds to 0.80. These refinements reduced false-positive detections by 63%. This framework demonstrates a scalable approach for the autonomous analysis of ambient pollen in heterogeneous urban environments.

This study aimed to investigate pollen types on the fruit quality of 'Hongyang' kiwifruit, providing a scientific basis for rational pollinizer tree allocation. Using 'Hongyang' as the test material and commercial pollen as the control, pollen from 12 male plants of 2 species ( Actinidia chinesis var. Deliciosa and A. chinensis ) was used to pollinate in orchards. PCA was applied for comprehensive evaluation of the pollinated fruit. The results were as follows: (1) Male A. chinesis var. deliciosa plants had a later flowering period but more pollen than male A. chinensis plants did, and there were notable intraspecific differences in floral traits. Among the six tested male plants of A. chinensis ('a-1', 'a-2', 'a-3', 'a-5', 'a-6', 'a-7'), their flowering periods basically overlap with those of 'Hongyang', while the other materials were 5-23 days later than 'Hongyang'.(2) 'Hongyang' had a significant pollen xenia on the fruit set, quality, and seed characteristics, particularly showing large differences in single fruit weight, sugar-acid ratio, vitamin C content, flesh color, and seed number. Different pollen pollination treatments had different impacts on 'Hongyang' fruit quality. (3) According to principal component scores, floral organ characteristics, and flowering period evaluations, male A. chinensis plants 'a-6', 'a-2', and 'a-7' are suitable and compatible pollinizers for 'Hongyang', whereas the male A. chinensis var. deliciosa male plants 'a-10' and 'a-12' are recommended for poststorage artificial pollination. In conclusion, there are significant differences in floral traits among inter- and intraspecific male kiwifruit plants. Pollen donor choice notably affects the key quality indicators of 'Hongyang'.

Heat stress (HS) is a primary factor limiting plant reproductive success, severely affecting pollen production and performance. In order to clarify the molecular alterations underlying HS-induced male sterility, lipidomic and small RNA sequencing analyses were conducted on hydrated pollen (HP), germinated pollen (GP), pollensomes (PS), and the vesicle-free medium of Brassica napus L. cv Phoenix CL grown under both control and HS conditions. HS significantly reduced pollen germinability and increased PS externalization. Although particle size remained unchanged, a significant increase in PS abundance was observed in HS-derived samples. Lipid profiling revealed significant HS-induced remodelling across all samples, including an increase in saturated fatty acids in HP and GP. Notably, triacontanoic acid, the dominant lipid in control PS, was lost under HS conditions and was replaced by oleic acid. Small RNA sequencing identified 70 miRNAs, 61 of which were differentially expressed. HP showed the strongest response to HS, while PS showed opposite trends, suggesting the selective retention or export of miRNAs. HS increased the levels of miR160, miR6030a and miR319a in PS, while the release of miR399 shifted from being vesicular to non-vesicular. Target prediction revealed that these miRNAs regulate pathways associated with development, hormones, vesicles, and lipids. Overall, this study reveals that HS remodels lipid metabolism and miRNA-mediated regulation in pollen and PS, providing molecular signatures for improving crop heat tolerance.

Determining the relative impacts of climate variability and human activities on vegetation dynamics remains a central theme in paleoecological research. In climate transition zones like the southeastern Marmara region, isopollen maps are important because they allow for the evaluation of spatially diverse pollen records within an integrated regional framework. The aim of this study is to present a spatially holistic reconstruction of Late Holocene vegetation change in the southern Marmara region using isopollen maps based on fossil pollen records obtained from Manyas, Iznik and Sapanca lakes. Isopollen maps were created for five time periods, approximately 2600, 2000, 1250, 800 and 400 yr BP, representing major climatic and historical phases of the Late Holocene, and the spatial distribution patterns of the major tree and herbaceous taxa were reconstructed. The results demonstrate the presence of a continuous west-east variability in the region's vegetation structure, reflecting the transition between Mediterranean and Black Sea climate regimes. However, the temporal variation patterns show that vegetation responses cannot always be directly explained by climatic phases. In particular, Artemisia highlights the persistence and local expansion of open-area vegetation, reaching approximately 24% of the study area to the present day. Given the region's long history of settlement, these findings indicate that vegetation dynamics during the Late Holocene were shaped by the combined effects of climatic changes, local environmental conditions and human activities. Therefore, the study emphasizes the importance of spatially integrated approaches in paleoecological reconstructions.

This study evaluated the microbiological quality, phenolic compound profile, antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens, and the presence of potential chemical markers associated with microplastic polymers in 35 commercial bee pollen samples obtained from the seven geographical regions of T&#xfc;rkiye. Microbiological analyses included the enumeration of total mesophilic aerobic bacteria, coliforms, yeasts and molds, lactobacilli, lactococci, and psychrophilic bacteria. Antimicrobial activity was determined against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella Enteritidis using the disk diffusion method. Phenolic compounds were analyzed by HPLC-DAD, while characteristic pyrolysis products associated with microplastics were analyzed by PY-GC/MS. The results indicated that the pollen samples generally exhibited low microbial contamination levels and variable antimicrobial activity, depending on their geographical origin. Quercetin was identified as the predominant phenolic compound, and samples with higher phenolic content tended to show stronger antimicrobial effects, particularly against S. aureus. PY-GC/MS analyses revealed the presence of several chemical markers potentially associated with plastic polymers in a considerable proportion of the samples. Spearman correlation analysis showed a positive correlation between total phenolic content and particularly S. aureus inhibition. These findings highlight the nutritional and functional value of bee pollen while also drawing attention to emerging food safety concerns related to possible exposure to plastic-associated environmental contaminants. Regular monitoring of bee pollen is therefore recommended to ensure product quality and consumer safety.

This study identified the fertility alteration characteristics and cytological mechanisms of the thermo-photo-sensitive genic male sterile (TPSGMS) wheat line K64S. The fertility-sensitive stage of K64S extends from pollen mother cell formation to the tetrad development stage, with critical fertility alteration thresholds of 14-14.5 &#xb0;C for temperature and 9-9.5 h for daylength. Under low-temperature and short-day conditions, K64S exhibits complete male sterility, whereas it returns to fertility under high-temperature and long-day conditions. Cytological analysis shows that K64S undergoes normal meiosis and successfully forms normal uninucleate microspores. 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining revealed the uninucleate microspores failed to form binucleate microspores, with abortion occurring during the late uninucleate stage. Transmission electron microscopy indicates the pollen abortion in sterile K64S arises primarily from premature tapetal degeneration (a form of programmed cell death, PCD), initiated at the pollen mother cell stage, which disrupts nutrient supply and leads to abnormal nuclear division during subsequent microspore development. These findings provide insights into the cytological mechanism of pollen abortion in TPSGMS wheat and may guide hybrid wheat breeding and application.

Profilins are ubiquitous pan-allergens responsible for cross-reactivity between pollens and plant foods. While we previously demonstrated that recombinant Acanthamoeba profilin (rAc-PF) drives allergic airway inflammation via Th2/Th17 pathways in murine models, its clinical relevance in human allergic disease remains unclear. This study investigated rAc-PF as a novel inhalant allergen and its immunological impact on patients with allergic airway diseases. A total of 176 patients with allergic airway diseases underwent skin prick tests with rAc-PF and a standard panel of 55 common aeroallergens. Acanthamoeba-specific and rAc-PF-specific serum IgE levels were quantified using ELISA. To elucidate immune mechanisms, peripheral blood mononuclear cells from atopic asthma patients were stimulated with rAc-PF, and Th2/Th17 cytokine production was analyzed. Thirteen patients (7.4%) showed positive skin prick tests reactions to rAc-PF. This sensitization was significantly associated with tree, grass, and weed pollens, indicating a pan-allergen characteristic due to high cross-reactivity. Notably, one patient sensitized to rAc-PF reacted to no other common inhalants, suggesting rAc-PF as a unique causative agent. Patients exhibited significantly elevated levels of serum Acanthamoeba-specific and rAc-PF-specific IgE compared to healthy controls. Furthermore, rAc-PF stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from asthmatic patients induced robust production of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and IL-17A in humans. rAc-PF is identified as a novel allergen capable of inducing IgE-mediated sensitization and mixed Th2/Th17 responses. The strong association with pollen sensitization supports its role as an environmental pan-allergen. Therefore, rAc-PF should be considered a clinically relevant diagnostic target, especially in patients with polysensitization or unidentified triggers.

Despite the advantages of heterosis, lettuce breeding historically relies on conventional methods due to a lack of male-sterile germplasm. Within the cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenase superfamily, the CYP703A subfamily, responsible for sporopollenin biosynthesis, represents an ideal target for genome editing to generate male-sterile lettuce. In this study, we first conducted a comprehensive identification of the CYP gene family in lettuce. A total of 379 LsCYPs were obtained, and sequence analyses confirmed the presence of the CYP domain (PF00067) in all identified LsCYP proteins. Phylogenetic analysis classified these LsCYPs into 9 clans and 61 families according to their homology to Arabidopsis counterparts, as further supported by gene structure, conserved motifs, and domain composition analyses. Transcriptome data indicated that nearly one-third of LsCYPs exhibited altered expression under heat stress, suggesting their potential roles in thermal tolerance. In particular, the emphasis was placed on the functional characterization of LsCYP703A, which is specifically expressed in developing flowers. Phenotypic analysis of overexpression and knockout LsCYP703A lines revealed its essential role in pollen wall formation. Furthermore, the "AMS-MYB80-CYP703A" signaling pathway was investigated in lettuce, supporting its evolutionary conservation within Asteraceae lineage. Together, these findings provide a comprehensive overview of the LsCYP gene family and functional evidence for the involvement of LsCYP703A in male sterility, offering valuable resources for hybrid lettuce breeding.

A comprehensive palynotaxonomic study is presented of species of Vernonia from Madagascar, documenting 37 (out of 44) taxa using light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Statistical analyses were performed to explore patterns of variation in quantitative data between the species. The pollen variation is categorised into two pollen types based on qualitative and quantitative characters, which was supported by Principal Components Analysis. A mesoaperture, a unique apertural structure, is also described for the genus for the first time. Further integrative taxonomic studies focused on Vernonia and the Vernonieae tribe, including species from continental Africa and Madagascar, are ongoing and will help to determine whether these characters remain taxonomically informative and whether they could be applied in an evolutionary framework.

The ingestion of the pollen beetle Astylus atromaculatus causes gastroenteric disease in ruminants and possibly in other species. No toxic principle has been identified in these insects. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of oral administration of A. atromaculatus in guinea pigs using fresh insects (n = 3) and insects dried for different periods (2, 30, 60, 120, or 240 days) (n = 5). All animals became sick and died spontaneously between 10 and 96 hours after inoculation. Clinical signs included depression; reluctance to move, eat, and drink; kyphosis; and increased frequency of vocalization, with no differences observed between the 2 experiments. Gross and microscopic findings consisted of diffuse ulcerative, fibrinonecrotizing, and hemorrhagic enteritis. No differences were observed in the type or severity of lesions between the 2 experiments or in animals inoculated with beetles dried for different durations. No clinical signs or lesions were observed in guinea pigs from the control group (n = 2). This study adds to the knowledge of A. atromaculatus-associated fatal gastroenteric disease in non-ruminants and highlights the persistent harmful effects of dried pollen beetles.

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