Pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) provides broad-spectrum protection in plants by activating defense responses upon perception of conserved microbial signatures such as bacterial flagellin. In vitro transcriptome profiling revealed that the Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 two-component regulator CvsR mirrors some of the broader regulatory patterns observed under the exposure to PTI in planta. Our analyses indicated that during infection in planta, CvsR primarily governs a small core regulon centered on carbonic anhydrase and its associated transporter. Comparative RNA-seq analyses between the ΔcvsR and wild-type strain further confirm this narrow regulatory scope. Moreover, the majority of bacterial transcriptional shifts appear to reflect indirect consequences of response to the host immune environment rather than direct CvsR-dependent regulation, including responses associated with sulfate starvation. Together, these findings suggest that PTI-driven bacterial transcriptional reprogramming is shaped predominantly by host immune status, with CvsR exerting modest, targeted control restricted to a limited set of genes. Pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) provides broad-spectrum disease resistance in plants by recognizing conserved microbial patterns such as bacterial flagellin. Activation of PTI alters the environment that pathogens encounter during infection, yet how bacteria respond to these immune-imposed conditions at the molecular level remains poorly understood. In this study, we profile the bacterial transcriptome directly in planta during infection with RNA-seq, providing a detailed view of pathogen responses under immune pressure. We focus on the previously identified two-component regulator CvsR and show that, despite widespread transcriptional changes induced by PTI, CvsR directly controls only a small core set of genes in planta. Instead, most bacterial transcriptional shifts reflect indirect responses to the immune-modified host environment. By capturing pathogen gene expression during infection, this work clarifies how plant immunity constrains bacterial physiology and provides insight that can inform sustainable strategies for crop protection.
Mitigating the rapid increase in global CO₂ concentrations necessitates a deeper understanding of plant-microbe symbiotic carbon sequestration. While previous research has predominantly focused on woody plants, the carbon sequestration potential and mechanisms of herbaceous plants and their rhizosphere microbiomes remain largely underexplored. To address this gap, this study employed metagenomic technology to systematically investigate the carbon sequestration capacities and metabolic mechanisms of seven plant species and their rhizosphere soil microorganisms. Plant physiological measurements were integrated with microbial functional profiles predicted via PICRUSt2. The results show that the rhizosphere soil microbial communities generally possess functional genes for carbon decomposition and carbon fixation, providing evidence for the coupling of intracellular decomposition and synthesis metabolism in microorganisms. Notably, Spearman correlation analysis established a direct statistical link between plant physiological performance and specific microbial metabolic pathways. These findings demonstrate a functional coupling between plant physiology and rhizosphere microbial carbon metabolism. By linking plant phenotypes to microbial gene pathways, this study reveals that herbaceous plants and their rhizosphere microbiomes form an integrated carbon sequestration system. Therefore, leveraging such plant-soil interactions offers a promising strategy to enhance ecosystem carbon sinks and mitigate rising atmospheric CO₂.
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are widely used in plant-derived food cultivation. However, misuse may cause pollution and residual contamination. Challenges persist due to complex matrices and trace-level residual amounts, complicating detection in the plant foods. The present study developed a real-time direct analysis-high resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) method to determine 31 plant growth regulator residues in Rehmannia glutinosa. Quantification was performed using a matrix-matched calibration curve combined with internal standard correction. A strong linear correlation was observed between PGR concentration and the peak area ratio, with a correlation coefficient (R2) exceeding 0.99. LOQs were lower than the lowest residue limits in EU pesticide regulation (10 μg/kg) for the majority of analytes. Results confirmed that the method can detect these residues, with matrix-matched calibrations yielding acceptable recovery (70.1-119.8%) and precision (<20% RSD). The method was applied to the 16 cultivated R. glutinosa samples, and a total of four compounds were detected at concentrations ranging from 0.88 to 40.78 μg/kg. The results demonstrated that the method was simple, accurate, and reliable, making it suitable for detecting PGRs in R. glutinosa.
Plants serve as central hubs of complex network connecting above- and below-ground inhabitants. These relationships are further shaped by abiotic factors that impact the performance of all organisms in direct or indirect contact. Plant immunity orchestrates the outcomes of these interactions through multiple layers of perception, signal integration, and chemical responses. Although biotic and abiotic dynamics are highly visible in the phyllosphere, the soil represents a vast interface of constant interaction, including the effects of abiotic stressors. As a core component of plant immunity, contact with soil organisms contributes to the complex architecture of plant defense, leveraging the second functional genome to bolster an extended plant immune response. Consequently, continuous contact with organisms will serve as a priming stimulus, fostering systemic resilience against future challenges, particularly in a landscape where environmental fluctuations directly modulate pathogen virulence and soil health. In light of recent literature, the present review calls for the integration of ecological contexts into molecular studies of plant immunity, bridging the gap between cellular mechanisms and ecological dynamics to address the challenges of climate uncertainty.
Timely quantification of crop stress physiology remains challenging because conventional assays are destructive, labor-intensive, and poorly suited for continuous monitoring and field deployment. Here, we report a microneedle-enabled electrochemical biosensing platform with smartphone-based data collection for the in planta monitoring of plant stress that integrates three design innovations in a single architecture: (i) a fully integrated hollow microneedle-microfluidic measurement pathway for sap access, (ii) physical isolation of the metal electrodes from direct tissue contact to reduce insertion-zone abrasion of the sensing interface, improving biocompatibility and potentially lowering fouling pathways, and (iii) lithography-free fabrication of a modular transducer on an additively manufactured substrate. The platform comprises a three-electrode gold (Au) transducer modified with a nanostructured reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-chitosan layer. The biosensing platform enabled dual sensing channels via functionalized glucose oxidase (GOx) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) for the detection of glucose and water stress-associated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), respectively. The glucose channel showed a strong linear calibration over the tested range, with Pearson's r = 0.99, R2 = 0.98, sensitivity of 62.34 μA/mM, and a limit of detection (LOD) of 102.50 μM (∼1.85 mg/dL), while the H2O2 channel exhibited Pearson's r = 0.99, R2 = 0.99, sensitivity of 3.65 μA/decade, and an LOD of 3.22 μM. Repeatability across measured standards remained high for both channels, with mean coefficients of variation of 1.31% for glucose and 1.16% for H2O2. Ex vivo measurements in plant sap, including standard-addition experiments and comparison with commercial benchmark assays, provided validation of analyte concentration determination in plant-derived samples. In planta measurements on maize plants (Zea mays L.) grown under graded watering treatments revealed statistically significant treatment-dependent glucose and H2O2 signatures over time (p < 0.05), consistent with carbon-status and oxidative-stress responses to water deficit, respectively. This integrated, manufacturable platform provides a practical route toward real-time, data-driven crop management using minimally invasive electrochemical readouts.
The increasing prevalence of male infertility in animals has become a global concern. Recently, the use of herbal medicinal plants to enhance spermatozoa production has attracted increased interest. Therefore, this review aimed to summarize the results of available studies on these medicinal plants and determine the effectiveness and safety of their use in improving the fertility of male animals. Medline/PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases were searched for English articles published during 1983-2024 that contained a number of key terms, including animal fertility, animal reproductive, animal spermatogenesis, and medicinal plants. Finally, these studies included five different medicinal plants, namely, Allium sativum, Apium graveolens, Avena sativa, Lepidium sativum, and Spinacia oleracea, which have a clear effect on animal fertility and efficiency. A total of 127 studies were included, including 69 related to fertility and 58 related to phytochemicals, action mechanism, health benefits, and plant characteristics; in addition to 11 related to infertility were excluded. In conclusion, herbal plants are likely to be beneficial in increasing animal fertility due to their antioxidant function and lack of adverse effects.
Naturally occurring carbohydrates play a crucial role in the food nutritional and medicinal properties of plants. However, measuring these sugars in common herbal products is still not well established, especially for those intended for diabetic patients. The sugar content in these products directly impacts their safety, effectiveness, and authenticity. This study presents a straightforward isocratic high -performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method with a refractive index (RI) detector. It allows for the simultaneous identification and measurement of seven sugars: D-(-)-Ribose, D-(+)-Xylose, D-(-)-Fructose, D-(+)-Glucose, Sucrose, D-(+)-Maltose, and α-Lactose. This method was applied for the determination of sugar content in aqueous extracts from Stevia rebaudiana (ST) (leaves), Glycyrrhiza glabra (GG) (roots), Withania somnifera (WS) (roots), Gymnema sylvestre (GS) (leaves), Adhatoda Vasica Nees. (AV) (leaves), Emblica officinalis (EO) (fruit), Azadirachta indica A. (AI) (leaves), Alstonia scholaris (L.) (AS) (bark), Aegle marmelos (L.) (AM) (bark), Aloe barbadensis Mill. (ALV) (leaves pulp). We developed a method based on an ACE Excel 5 NH2 column using an acetonitrile-water (85:15, v/v) mobile phase at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min and a detection temperature of 35 °C. The method requires no derivatization and allows for direct analysis in aqueous samples. We followed ICH Q2 (R1) guidelines during the validation process. This confirmed excellent linearity, sensitivity (LOD/LOQ), accuracy, precision, specificity, and robustness. We extracted plant materials from several batches (n = 5 per species) using extraction with water at 80 °C hot aqueous extraction for 2 h followed by room temperature maceration for 24 h and then lyophilization, ensuring consistent results across different harvests. Our approach provided reliable sugar profiling among different medicinal plant species, showing variations between batches, and creating a solid dataset for quality control and authentication. This work is unique because it combines a universal, non-destructive RI-based detection system with an isocratic flow for which most of published work is unable to establish at HPLC-RI platform. It enables multi-sugar profiling in medicinal plants without needing derivatization or complex sample preparation. The method's simplicity and reliability make it a practical tool for routine quality checks of herbal products, especially those aimed at managing blood sugar levels. Undetected adulteration of sugar could affect therapeutic goals.
The present study deals with the traditional knowledge and conservation status of wild plant species in the tribal Orakzai district, an ecologically transitional zone between subtropical and temperate, which is still largely underexplored in quantitative and conservation ethnobotany. Semi-structured questionnaires and participatory observations were employed to interview local participants and plant specimens were collected in the study area. In total, 123 species belonging to 60 families and 112 genera were reported with multiple tribal applications. Trends in tribal practices and cultural outcomes of the reported taxa were assessed using quantitative indices including cultural importance index (CI), use diversity index (UDI), direct matrix ranking (DMR), informant consensus factor (ICF), and Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC). Traditionally important medicinal plants, including Daphne papyracea, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Salix babylonica, Berberis lycium, Hedera helix, and Pyrola chlorantha were identified in the surveys. Herbaceous species are the most common. Leaves, twigs and rhizomes were the main parts of the plants. The vulnerability status was determined by using a cross-referencing protocol based on a combination of community perceptions, field observations, IUCN categories and Kew's predicted extinction risks. With this integrated protocol, 37% of species were classified as highly vulnerable, 19% as moderately threatened and 43% as least vulnerable. The study concludes that there is a dire need for plant conservation and preservation of tribal ecological knowledge.
During plant infection, complex metabolic interactions occur between the host and the pathogen, including direct competition for resources. While pathogens exploit host-derived nutrients to sustain growth and virulence, plants attempt to restrict pathogen proliferation by limiting nutrient availability. To quantify the contribution of these trophic interactions to disease development, we developed a mathematical model of plant-pathogen metabolism. A genome-scale metabolic model of the pathogen was integrated with a genome-scale, multi-organ metabolic model of the plant and calibrated using experimental data. Model simulations were performed using a sequential flux balance analysis framework. This approach was applied to the Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum-tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) pathosystem. Quantitative fluxes of matter occurring during plant infection were predicted. The model shows that (i) plant photosynthetic capacity imposes a stronger constraint on bacterial proliferation than mineral availability; (ii) infection-induced reduction in plant transpiration first limits plant growth and subsequently restricts pathogen expansion; (iii) stem resource hijacking enhances bacterial growth but is likely limited; and (iv) pathogen-excreted putrescine is likely reutilized for the plant's needs. Together, these results provide a quantitative assessment of resource competition in plant-pathogen interactions and highlight the central role of water flow during infection by a fast-growing, xylem-colonizing bacterium.
Iron deficiency limits legume production on calcareous soils, and commonly used synthetic iron chelates (e.g., Fe-EDTA) are effective but non-biodegradable and may mobilize toxic metals. Microbial siderophores offer an environmentally sound alternative, yet their direct application as biofertilizers remains underexplored. Here, we evaluated the iron-carrying siderophore produced by Amycolatopsis lurida strain 407 as a biofertilizer for chickpea. Siderophore extracts were quantified and characterized by the CAS assay, Fe (III)-ICP-OES, Arnow and FeCl₃ tests, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and genome mining (antiSMASH). Results indicate strain 407 secretes a mixed catecholate-hydroxamate siderophore whose UV-Vis spectrum (200-600 nm) matches mirubactin C and is supported by a mirubactin-like biosynthetic gene cluster in its closest type strain. When applied to chickpea, the Fe + siderophore from strain 407 increased root dry weight and yielded the highest shoot biomass (28 g/ plant), pod/plant (41 pods), and seed/pod (36 seeds), outperforming chemical iron fertilizer, Fe-EDTA/ Sequestrin 138 (22 g, 24 pods, 24 seeds). Furthermore, seed soluble protein (20 mg/g dry seed) was 17% higher than with Sequestrin 138. In this study, for the first time, findings show the mirubactin-like Fe-siderophore from A. lurida 407 enhances plant growth and seed quality and represents a promising, eco-friendly alternative to synthetic iron fertilizers.
Protection strategies, nurse plants, and abiotic factors affect the natural regeneration of tree seedlings. However, their interactions have been less considered in restoration and management programs. We assessed the impacts of nurse plants, diversity of companion species, and soil factors on the density of Pinus gerardiana seedlings under different protection levels in the alpine pine forests of the western Himalayas in Afghanistan. We selected three sites with different protection strategy levels (low protection (LP), medium protection (MP), and high protection (HP)). Three macro-plots were established in each site; then, 10 × 10 m2 quadrats were established within the macro-plots to quantify woody species. Then, three 1 × 1 m2 quadrats were established within 10 × 10 m2 quadrats to measure herbaceous species. Soil factors were collected within the quadrats. In each site, some dominant woody species were selected as nurse species, and the area beneath their canopies was sampled using 0.5 × 0.5 m2 quadrats and the same number of quadrats in open areas to assess the density of pine species without the effects of woody species. Linear mixed-effect models and variation partitioning analysis were performed to assess the effects of the predictors on pine density. The density of pine exhibited a direct relationship with the presence of nurse species, particularly in HP and MP sites. A negative correlation was found between the diversity of companion species and pine density in LP and MP sites, whereas a positive effect of such diversity was found on pine density in the HP site. Phosphorus and sulfur were identified as primary soil factors influencing pine density in HP and MP sites, while organic carbon and pH were important to explain pine density in the LP site. Overall, the diversity of companion species, nurse plants, and soil parameters significantly affected the density of pine. However, their effects were overshadowed by management strategies.
Nanopore direct RNA sequencing (DRS) enables transcriptome-wide detection of N6-methyladenosine (m6A), a pivotal RNA modification that regulates plant growth, development, and stress responses, at single-base resolution. However, existing Nanopore DRS-based m6A detection tools are often trained on ionic current signals from synthetic RNAs or model species, which limits their applicability to species with complex or polyploid genomes. Here, we present CatMOD, an ensemble machine learning framework for accurate m6A detection in plant DRS data that integrates complementary ionic current signal and non-signal features. CatMOD incorporates an evidence-based positive sampling strategy to improve generalizability across diverse plant species. Applied to Nanopore DRS data from seedlings of allohexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), CatMOD generated the first genome-wide, single-base resolution m6A atlas for this species. The atlas revealed variation in the number of predicted m6A sites among A, B, and D subgenomes within 1:1:1 homoeologous triads. Furthermore, subgenome-balanced m6A patterns were potentially associated with tissue-dependent expression plasticity of these triads. This study provides the first single-base resolution m6A atlas for wheat and establishes a scalable Nanopore DRS-based computational framework for epitranscriptome analysis in wheat and other polyploid species.
Soil amendment strategy is a primary determinant of long-term soil-plant-microbe recovery indicators following open-pit mining in boreal landscapes, yet evidence-based guidance for amendment selection remains limited. We conducted a nine-year field experiment at the Detour Lake Mine, Ontario, Canada, testing eight amendment strategies including peat-based combinations, inorganic fertilizer, biosolids, and oats applied singly or in combination. Peat-based treatments consistently outperformed other strategies, maintaining four-to six-fold higher soil carbon and nitrogen and supporting substantially greater vegetation structural development by Year 9 (biosolid + peat: 175.4 cm woody height, 100% vegetation cover; peat + fertilizer: 162.0 cm), compared to non-peat treatments that achieved high early cover but limited long-term woody growth. Oats with fertilizer followed an intermediate trajectory, with microbial communities showing partial compositional similarity to peat-based treatments by Year 9, though extended monitoring and supplementary organic inputs would be required where peat is unavailable. Piecewise structural equation modelling revealed that associations among soil properties, microbial communities, and vegetation shifted substantially across recovery stages, with indirect microbially associated pathways most prominent at Year 2 and direct soil-plant associations becoming more prominent by Year 9, though alternative model structures could generate similar path configurations. Treatment differences in soil resources, inferred microbial functional potential, and vegetation structure were most strongly integrated at Year 5, identifying mid-recovery as the most informative monitoring window. These findings support a trajectory-based approach to boreal mine reclamation in which combined organic and nutrient amendments support the most sustained soil, vegetation, and microbial community recovery trajectories across the indicators measured here, and repeated monitoring across recovery stages, integrating soil, microbial, and vegetation indicators, is needed to capture divergent recovery pathways and inform adaptive management decisions.
Genome-editing tools for the precise, efficient modification of DNA have led to groundbreaking advances in crop improvement and basic plant science research. However, conventional genome editing may result in the integration of unintended gene fragments into the host genome, along with off-target effects and the risk of genetic drift of resistance genes. By contrast, transgene-free genome editing represents a revolutionary breakthrough due to its ability to 1) achieve precise and stable genomic modifications while minimizing foreign DNA integration through DNA-free or transient delivery of CRISPR components; and 2) deliver ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) or mRNA into the host. In this review, we discuss the core principles of transgene-free genome-editing technologies, including the direct delivery of RNPs, mRNA delivery systems, the precise substitution of single nucleotides using cytosine or adenine base editors (CBEs, ABEs), and the mechanisms behind multiple types of prime editing that use templates for reverse transcriptases. These techniques have driven the development of crops considered nongenetically modified, as they do not contain stably integrated foreign DNA. Finally, we discuss future prospects, including the development of transgene-free genome-editing tools that combine delivery systems with artificial intelligence-assisted optimization, with promising applications for agriculture.
Direct apple pests, including codling moth (Cydia pomonella) and plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar), cause significant economic losses in apple orchards worldwide. With the phase-out of broad-spectrum insecticides, evaluating reduced-risk alternatives has become crucial for sustainable orchard management. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of insecticide programs based on modern reduced-risk chemistries against key direct apple pests, with a particular focus on the experimental insecticide cyantraniliprole. A replicated field trial was conducted in Urbana, Illinois, USA, during the 2013 growing season. Five insecticide programs plus an untreated control were compared using a randomized complete block design. Fruit damage assessments were conducted mid-season and at harvest. All insecticide treatments significantly reduced (p < 0.05) internal Lepidoptera damage (codling moth and oriental fruit moth) at harvest compared with the untreated control. Cyantraniliprole, indoxacarb, and chlorantraniliprole-based programs provided excellent control with near-zero infestation levels. However, none of the insecticide programs provided significant control of plum curculio oviposition scars at harvest, highlighting a critical limitation in current management strategies that remains a challenge today. Reduced-risk insecticides, such as cyantraniliprole, represent valuable tools in IPM programs against Lepidopteran pests. However, the consistently limited efficacy of chemical means to control plum curculio underscores the necessity of integrating non-chemical control tactics for sustainable management of this key pest. This study, conducted in 2013, provides a foundational assessment that contemporary IPM must integrate newer chemistries and non-chemical strategies to address potential resistance and evolving pest pressures.
Plants emit volatile compounds that orchestrate complex ecological interactions, with methylated catabolites of interaction-induced phytohormones being common examples. Salicylic acid (SA) mediates plant antipathogen responses, while its methylated derivative, MeSA, broadly mediates plant-insect interactions without specificity. Here, we identified dimethyl salicylate (DMSA), an unappreciated dimethylated SA catabolite, emitted by rice when attacked by the major destructive pest, the brown planthopper. DMSA biosynthesis requires an O-methyltransferase cascade, BSMT1 (benzoic acid/salicylic acid carboxyl methyltransferase 1)-MSOMT (methyl salicylate O-methyltransferase), which is directly activated by a jasmonate (JA)-responsive MYC2-JAMYB transcriptional cascade. Natural variation in the MSOMT promoter confers its herbivory-induced expression in indica but not japonica cultivars. Functionally, DMSA acts as a specific volatile signal attracting the egg-parasitoid wasps of brown planthoppers (BPHs) without mediating direct resistance, which demonstrably suppresses BPH populations in paddy fields. DMSA is an optimized advance in SA signaling derived plant "alarm calls" with great potential in sustainable rice pest management.
Phytochrome A (phyA), the only far-red light (FRL) photoreceptor, initiates photomorphogenesis under FRL. Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved degradation pathway, facilitates plant adaptation to nutrient stress. Recent studies revealed that elongated hypocotyl 5 (HY5) undergoes autophagic degradation during carbon and nitrogen starvation, a process antagonized by cryptochrome 1 (CRY1) through its binding to autophagy-related 8 (ATG8). The present study investigated how phyA engages with autophagy to mediate FRL signaling under nutrient starvation in Arabidopsis, a process whose mechanisms remain unclear. We combined protein-protein interaction, genetic, phenotypic, autophagic degradation, transcriptomic, and cellular localization assays to investigate this process. We demonstrate that autophagy-deficient mutants atg5, atg7, and atg8n exhibit enhanced photomorphogenesis under FRL. We further show that phyA physically interacts with ATG8 to suppress HY5 degradation via the autophagy pathway during combined FRL and nutrient starvation. Moreover, phyA restrains the nuclear export of ATG8e and inhibits autophagosome formation. Collectively, our results identify a phyA-ATG8-HY5 regulatory module that orchestrates photomorphogenesis under nutrient deficiency. These findings, together with earlier reports on CRY1, illustrate how distinct photoreceptors employ divergent strategies to converge on autophagy and fine-tune HY5 stability, thereby optimizing plant growth in fluctuating light and nutrient environments.
Roots represent the primary interface for sensing and responding to complex soil environments, where cytoskeletal networks play a central role in coordinating stress perception, ion transport, and detoxification processes. However, the contribution of cytoskeleton-mediated mechanisms to root adaptation under combined metal stress and sediment-based remediation strategies remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the cytoskeleton-associated physiological and molecular responses of Spinacia oleracea L. grown in chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) co-contaminated soils amended with fishpond sediments (FPS) and nanoparticle-modified sediments (FPS+ZnONPs and FPS+SiNPs). By integrating soil chemical properties with root and whole-plant responses, we evaluated metal immobilization, stress mitigation, and putative cytoskeleton-associated uptake regulation inferred indirectly from physiological, biochemical, and redox-related indicators rather than direct cytological evidence under multifactorial environmental constraints. Both FPS and nanoparticle-treated FPS significantly reduced the bioavailable fractions of Cr, Cu, and Zn, with FPS+ZnONPs exhibiting the highest immobilization efficiency. These changes were associated with decreased metal accumulation in roots and shoots, which may reflect altered ion transport and cellular detoxification responses potentially associated with cytoskeleton-related processes. Improved rhizosphere conditions enhanced photosynthetic performance, chlorophyll content, and biomass production. Notably, FPS+ZnONPs markedly increased antioxidant enzyme activities and soluble sugar levels, while reducing proline, malondialdehyde, and hydrogen peroxide concentrations, indicating restoration of redox homeostasis and possible stabilization of stress-related cellular functions. Expression patterns of stress-responsive genes further supported the activation of coordinated detoxification networks, which may indirectly interact with cytoskeleton-associated and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related signaling pathways, although direct cytoskeletal analyses were not performed in this study. Importantly, FPS+ZnONPs substantially reduced the estimated dietary intake of Cr, Cu, and Zn through spinach consumption, demonstrating the downstream benefits of improved root detoxification for food safety. Collectively, our findings suggest that nanoparticle-modified fishpond sediments enhance plant tolerance to multifactorial metal stress by coupling soil metal immobilization with physiological and molecular stress responses, while indirectly supporting the potential involvement of cytoskeleton-associated adaptive mechanisms in complex soil systems.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has revoked approval for Red 3 in food products, requiring reformulation by January 2027. To support compliance, this study introduces a rapid, efficient fluorometric method for detecting Red 3 in food samples. The procedure involves sonication with methanol, followed by direct fluorometric analysis at Red 3's peak emission wavelength (553 nm). Detection and quantitation limits reach parts-per-billion levels using either excitation at 534 nm or synchronous excitation with a 19 nm offset. The full process takes 30 min and uses 25 mL of solvent per sample. Importantly, the extraction step-taking roughly 20 min or 67% of total time-can be done simultaneously across multiple samples. This parallel processing enhances throughput and sustainability. The method's simplicity, speed, and scalability make it ideal for routine screening in regulatory and quality control labs, ensuring food safety and adherence to new FDA guidelines.
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient vital for plant health and productivity. How plants integrate nutrient signals and epigenome dynamics to modulate transcription and developmental transition remains largely unknown. Here, we uncover the crucial role of EARLY BOLTING IN SHORT DAYS (EBS) homeostasis in controlling floral transitions in response to nitrogen deficiency. EBS, a bivalent histone reader capable of recognizing both H3K27me3 and H3K4me3 histone marks, can switch its binding preference to regulate the vegetative-to-reproductive transition. We demonstrate that nitrogen and Target of Rapamycin (TOR) signaling regulate EBS protein abundance through a direct TOR-EBS interaction. TOR phosphorylates EBS at the S195 and S196 residues, which promotes EBS stability and represses the transcription of FT and other flowering genes, thereby preventing premature floral transition. Collectively, this study identifies EBS as a direct substrate of TOR and reveals a mechanistic link between nutrient signaling, epigenome dynamics, and plant developmental transition. Our findings provide important insights into complex nutrient-TOR-chromatin interplays and highlight the intricate mechanisms by which plants adapt their growth and developmental processes based on nutrient availability.