The Global Plant Health Assessment is a collaborative project involving approximately one hundred scientists across the world, addressing the global state of plant health as a common good. The project is unusual in that it relies entirely on voluntary contributions from scientists, operates without dedicated funding, and incorporates internal collaboration mechanisms for peer review and publication. Plant Health Reports have been developed by teams of scientists for more than 30 cases, each focusing on a purposely selected keystone plant species representing plant systems in multiple world ecoregions. These plant systems encompass forests, field crops, perennial crops, household and periurban systems, as well as urban forests, in both the Global North and the Global South. Despite this necessarily fragmented information, an overall view however emerges on the current state and recent evolution of world plant health, as well as on the consequences of declining plant health on three categories of ecosystem services generated by healthy plants: provisioning, regulating, and cultural-spiritual. Additional reports are being developed to improve this view, along with new developments where the future of plant health and its consequences will be addressed. As a project structure and organisational model, the Global Plant Health Assessment could serve as a template for future collective scientific efforts addressing major questions about global common goods.
Engineered nanomaterials are frequently utilized as vectors for the targeted delivery of biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and protein-nucleic acid complexes in mammalian cells, showing significant potential in medical applications. However, their use in plants remains limited. Little is known about the mechanisms of nanomaterial transport in plant cells and how their properties influence their internalization ability, which restricts their application in plant systems. In this review, we systematically summarize the translocation mechanism of nanomaterials within plant systems, and highlight how the size, shape, stiffness, and surface properties of nanomaterials affect their internalization in plants. Moreover, we discuss the types of cargoes and the transformation strategies employed in nanomaterial-mediated delivery. Finally, we highlight the key challenges and emerging opportunities associated with nanomaterial-based plant delivery systems, aiming to provide critical insights for advancing biomolecule delivery technologies in plant biotechnology.
To alleviate the cadmium (Cd) stress in maize, we investigated the effects of intercropping maize with the Cd-hyperaccumulator plant Solanum nigrum var. humile on the growth and Cd uptake of both plant species under Cd stress (5 mg/L). Intercropping maize with S. nigrum var. humile increased the plant height, root length, and biomass in both plant species. Compared with their respective monocultures, intercropped maize showed the increase effects in root and shoot biomass by 13.58% and 8.58%, respectively, while intercropped S. nigrum var. humile exhibited the increases of 13.87% and 12.26%, respectively. Additionally, intercropping enhanced the photosynthetic pigment content, photosynthetic gas exchange parameters, and antioxidant enzyme activities in both plant species. Furthermore, intercropping with S. nigrum var. humile decreased the root Cd content but increased the shoot Cd content and translocation factor in maize. In S. nigrum var. humile, intercropping increased both root and shoot Cd contents, as well as the translocation factor. Thus, intercropping maize with S. nigrum var. humile can promote Cd uptake in aboveground parts of maize, and it may be not suitable for maize production in Cd-contaminated areas. Maize intercropping with Cd-hyperaccumulator plant Solanum nigrum var. humile can promote the growth and increase the shoot Cd uptakes of both plant species. This finding suggests that the application of intercropping should be reconsidered in Cd-contaminated areas.
Abandoned mining sites are major sources of metallic trace element contamination, which negatively affects plant growth, physiological functions, and metabolic activities. In addition, stress caused by metallic trace elements can alter the biosynthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites. Among the various soil remediation strategies, phytoremediation assisted by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) has emerged as a promising approach. This research examined how effective native AMF are in improving the tolerance of Lepidium sativum L. to lead (Pb) stress. The plants were first cultivated for 2 months in uncontaminated soil before being exposed to 50 mg L-1 Pb in a controlled environment. A comparative analysis was carried out to assess the impact of mycorrhizal inoculation on plants subjected to Pb exposure versus those that were not. The effects of mycorrhization on growth, physiological performance, and biochemical responses were evaluated. The results demonstrated that mycorrhization positively influenced plant responses to lead stress, as evidenced by improved growth and physiological performance. Compared with non-mycorrhizal plants, mycorrhizal plants exhibited increases of approximately 36% and 17% in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b contents, respectively, as well as an approximately twofold increase in total soluble sugars. Furthermore, mycorrhization promoted proline accumulation and significantly enhanced catalase activity, with mycorrhizal plants showing an approximately 55% increase compared with non-mycorrhizal plants, indicating a greater capacity to alleviate oxidative stress. Mycorrhization also increased the production of glomalin-related soil proteins in the rhizosphere, further contributing to plant tolerance under lead stress. These findings highlight the potential of indigenous AMF as an eco-friendly and sustainable strategy for enhancing plant tolerance and promoting phytoremediation in lead-contaminated soils.
Precise regulation of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell activity is essential to maximize efficacy and minimize toxicity. While switch-controlled CAR-T holds great promise, challenges remain in achieving accurate activation, reducing immunogenicity, and preventing off-target effects. Here we present a novel inducible ON-switch CAR design that leverages plant hormone signaling components to achieve controllable T cell activation. By engineering a receptor system integrating the plant auxin receptor AFB1 with its co-receptor IAA7, we enable ligand-dependent interactions triggered by the plant hormone auxins. This design allows rapid, reversible, and dose-dependent T cell activation, resulting in potent cytotoxicity against B-cell lymphoma in vitro and in vivo. Notably, auxCAR-T cells controlled by synthetic auxin analogs maintain a favorable memory phenotype and exhibit reduced functional exhaustion during treatment, leading to improved therapeutic efficacy. Our plant hormone-based orthogonal system overcomes key limitations of existing switch systems and advances the development of precision CAR-T therapies.
The chemical stability of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa plant material and formulated products is a critical factor for quality control, therapeutic efficacy, and regulatory compliance. Cannabinoids such as THC are prone to degradation over time, which is heavily influenced by storage conditions and the product matrix. Despite its importance, comprehensive long-term stability data comparing different plant chemovars (high THC, high cannabidiol [CBD], and intermediate) alongside processed products like extracts and isolates remains limited. This study aims to evaluate the stability of cannabinoids in plant material, extracts, oil formulations, and isolates (CBD and Δ9-THC) under distinct environmental temperatures to optimize storage guidelines. Cannabis plant material representing three distinct chemovars-high THC, high CBD, and intermediate (balanced THC/CBD), extracts, pure isolates (THC and CBD) and CBD extract as oil formulation were subjected to extended stability testing over a prolonged period under three controlled temperature environments: room temperature, refrigeration, and freezing. Quantitative analysis of cannabinoid content was performed at regular intervals using gas chromatography (GC/FID) to track degradation and potency over time. The stability profiles varied depending on the cannabinoid profile, temperature, and matrix type. For the majority of cannabis-derived products, exposure to room temperature accelerated the degradation of THC into cannabinol (CBN), whereas storage at -20°C preserved cannabinoid integrity over the extended timeline. Notably, a distinct divergence was observed between the compounds: CBD-only products demonstrated robust long-term stability even when maintained at room temperature. Conversely, THC-rich matrices were highly susceptible to ambient degradation but exhibited the highest stability when formulated as ethanolic solutions and stored in the freezer (-20°C). To maximize cannabinoid shelf-life and prevent degradation, storage temperatures must match product composition. While CBD-dominant products can tolerate room-temperature storage, THC-rich products require cold chain management, ideally stored in a freezer at -20°C for optimal long-term potency.
Biomolecular condensates formed through phase separation have emerged as a central principle of cellular organization, enabling the dynamic regulation of gene expression, signaling, metabolism, and stress responses. While early conceptual advances in condensate biology have largely originated from animal and in vitro systems, plant cells present a unique set of biological and technical challenges, including rigid cell walls, turgor pressure, plastid autofluorescence, complex endomembrane organization, and acute environmental responsiveness. These distinctive features impede the direct transfer of existing methodologies and drive the development of heterogeneous experimental practices. In this community comment, we present a comprehensive methodological framework for studying biomolecular condensates in plants, spanning in silico prediction, in vitro reconstitution, molecular dynamics simulations, live-cell and super-resolution imaging, material property measurements, membrane-associated condensates, and synthetic condensate engineering. We highlight best practices, common pitfalls, and plant-specific considerations, emphasizing the need for orthogonal validation, quantitative interpretation, and physiological relevance. By consolidating current methodologies and articulating shared principles, this review aims to establish a foundation for rigorous, reproducible, and conceptually coherent research in condensate biology of plants and beyond, with emerging implications for crop genetic improvement and synthetic biology applications.
Parasitoid wasps are effective biocontrol agents that rely on herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) to locate their host insects. HIPVs are complex mixtures of organic compounds, but not all compounds are equally attractive to parasitoids. This study aimed to identify the key HIPV compounds emitted by Zea mays that attract the generalist parasitoid wasp Bracon brevicornis and to evaluate their potential for sustained release in pest management applications. The compounds (3E,7E)-4,8,12-trimethyltrideca-1,3,7,11-tetraene (TMTT), (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene (DMNT), and geranyl acetate (GA) elicited the strongest attraction responses from Bracon brevicornis in olfactometer assays. A mixture of these compounds was more effective than individual components, with a ternary blend at a 1:1:2 ratio (TMTT:DMNT:GA) inducing the highest parasitoid attraction. The minimum effective concentration of this blend (0.2 ng/μL) attracted parasitoids over a distance of 5 m. Sustained-release formulations using kaolinite, alginate beads, and mesoporous silica (MCM-41) extended parasitoid attraction for 15, 21, and 54 h, respectively. In the cage study conducted under laboratory conditions, maize plants supplemented with the synthetic HIPV blend showed significantly higher parasitization of Corcyra cephalonica larvae by B. brevicornis compared with control plants. These results identify key herbivore-induced plant volatiles that mediate attraction and host localization by Bracon brevicornis. Use of a synthetic HIPV blend, particularly when delivered via sustained-release formulations, increased parasitization. Incorporation of synthetic HIPVs into integrated pest management programs may improve the efficiency and reliability of parasitoid-based biological control. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.
Recent discoveries have fundamentally transformed the paradigm of plant oxygen sensing. Hypoxia is no longer viewed solely because of environmental stress, such as flooding, but as a dynamic, intrinsic physiological signal that actively controls normal plant development. At the molecular level, this homeostatic oxygen monitoring is orchestrated by the Cysteine branch of the N-degron (Cys-N-degron) pathway. PLANT CYSTEINE OXIDASES (PCOs) act as direct oxygen sensors, using molecular oxygen as a co-substrate to oxidise N-terminal cysteine residues in Met-Cys (MC)-initiating proteins. This modification leads to their subsequent arginylation and proteasomal degradation via the E3 ligase PROTEOLYSIS 6 (PRT6). In addition to the well-studied group VII ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTORS (ERFVIIs), the Cys-N-degron pathway substrate repertoire now encompasses critical developmental and epigenetic regulators, including VERNALIZATION 2 (VRN2) and LITTLE ZIPPER 2 (ZPR2). These targets selectively accumulate in naturally hypoxic microenvironments, such as the shoot apical meristem (SAM), where endogenous oxygen gradients function as positional cues to coordinate organogenesis and developmental phase transitions. Although the Arabidopsis thaliana reference proteome harbours 283 MC-proteins, the MC motif is necessary but not sufficient for turnover. Thus, structural, biochemical, and metabolic constraints determine substrate selectivity. Furthermore, analysis of 1,135 natural Arabidopsis accessions highlights substantial variation in the MC-protein landscape, driven by accession-specific motif gains and losses. Collectively, these insights bridge classical hypoxia stress responses with developmental signalling in plants.
Triacylglycerols (TAGs), once considered passive storage reserves confined to seeds, are now recognized as dynamic components of plant lipid metabolism with pivotal roles in stress adaptation. Far from being inert carbon depots, TAGs function as metabolic buffers that integrate energy storage, membrane lipid remodeling, and cellular protection under fluctuating environmental conditions. Abiotic stresses such as temperature extremes, drought, salinity, and nutrient limitation disrupt membrane integrity and lipid homeostasis, leading to the release of free fatty acids and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). TAG biosynthesis under these conditions acts as a protective sink, sequestering toxic lipid intermediates, preserving membrane stability, and maintaining redox balance. The dynamic turnover between membrane lipids and TAGs allows plants to rapidly reorganize their lipid composition, stabilizing membranes during cold or heat stress, buffering osmotic imbalance during drought and salinity, and mitigating photodamage under nutrient deprivation. Emerging evidence highlights that TAG accumulation is not merely a byproduct of stress but a strategically regulated process linked to hormonal and redox signaling pathways. This reprogramming of lipid metabolism supports energy redistribution, detoxification of reactive lipid species, and recovery following stress exposure. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the biosynthetic, regulatory, and physiological roles of TAGs during abiotic stress. It discusses how TAG metabolism operates at the intersection of lipid remodeling, cellular homeostasis, and stress signaling, positioning TAGs as key determinants of plant resilience and promising targets for the biotechnological enhancement of crop stress tolerance.
Protein nanoparticles offer an innovative approach to next-generation subunit vaccine development by displaying antigenic sequences on the nanoparticle surface. Compared to traditional subunit vaccines, protein nanoparticle vaccines often show improved interaction with the immune system due to their particulate size and repetitive epitope display. Ferritin from Helicobacter pylori assembles into a spherical shape composed of 24 subunits that can display foreign peptides on its surface for use in vaccine development. Surface display can be achieved via genetic fusion of sequences encoding antigenic peptides to the N-terminus of the protein. Ferritin-based vaccine candidates have been increasingly explored through recombinant production in bacteria, insect cells, and mammalian cells; however, this protein had not been produced in plants before. We expressed ferritin from H. pylori in Nicotiana benthamiana and targeted it to the secretory pathway. We also modified ferritin to prevent glycosylation. We found this ferritin variant accumulates to over 0.2 mg/g fresh weight in plant leaves, and genetic fusion of a viral glyco-epitope to this protein significantly increases accumulation. We determined that the epitope is efficiently glycosylated and the protein fusion assembles into characteristic nanoparticles. We found that this fusion protein shows similar iron mineralization to the unmodified ferritin, and introducing a two amino acid substitution decreased this function. This study provides the groundwork for further exploration of plant-produced ferritin as a scaffold for vaccine development.
Salvia reflexa is an invasive plant of global concern due to its strong invasiveness and toxicity. However, limited chloroplast genomic information has hindered a comprehensive understanding of its phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history. To investigate the genomic features associated with invasiveness, the complete chloroplast genome of S. reflexa was sequenced and characterized, and a comparative analysis was conducted with other invasive and non-invasive species of the Salvia. The chloroplast genome of S. reflexa spanned 150,629 bp and possessed a typical quadripartite structure, including 82,054 bp large single-copy region, 17,569 bp small single-copy region, and two inverted repeats of 25,503 bp each. A total of 133 genes were identified, consisting of 88 protein-coding genes, 37 transfer RNA genes, and 8 ribosomal RNA genes. A total of 710 long repeats and 542 SSRs were identified across the analyzed Salvia chloroplast genomes. Comparative genomic analysis revealed that chloroplast genomes within Salvia are highly conserved, although several hypervariable regions, including ndhC-trnV, ndhF, rpl32-trnL, rps15-ycf1, and ycf1, were identified as potential molecular markers. Selective pressure analysis indicated that most genes are under purifying selection, whereas ycf2 shows evidence of positive selection. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis supported that S. reflexa is most closely related to S. japonica, while clustering into different clades with the invasive plant S. tiliifolia, suggesting distinct evolutionary trajectories. These findings provide valuable genomic resources for species identification, phylogenetic analysis, and population genetic research in Salvia, contributing to a deeper understanding of its evolutionary dynamics.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the site where proteins that are synthesized and destined for the secretory pathway fold into their native conformations. Genetic mutations, oxidative stress, reduced glycosylation, and disruption to ER folding and quality control systems are all factors that have been demonstrated to impair this process, leading to the production of misfolded proteins. It is imperative for the survival of cells that these misfolded proteins are recognized by specific signals and directed towards degradation via ER-associated degradation (ERAD), ER-phagy, or related ER-to-lysosome/vacuole transport processes. A pivotal step in this process is the recognition of specific degrons and the distinction between terminally misfolded proteins that necessitate clearance and folding intermediates that have the potential to reach their final conformation. A significant proportion of proteins that traverse the secretory pathway in eukaryotes undergo N-glycosylation. The attached N-glycans not only facilitate the folding and quality control of glycoproteins, but can also be processed to display a glycan degron signal necessary to initiate ERAD of glycoproteins. Here, we describe methods for investigating glycan-related degrons that are key determinants for the ERAD of misfolded glycoproteins in plants.
We report the whole genome of Serratia marcescens strain Sm25P5, an endophyte isolated from blast-resistant wheat seed. The 5.1-Mb genome harbors diverse putative biosynthetic gene associated with nutrient accumulation, mobilization, and antifungal activity, supporting its plant growth-promoting and biocontrol potential.
Bemisia tabaci damages crop plants by sucking plant sap and transmitting economically important viruses. For both processes, whitefly saliva plays an important role in establishing successful feeding contact. This study evaluated the effect of the Bta78 gene on whitefly survival, fecundity, and feeding activity by transiently expressing it in Nicotiana benthamiana plants using a Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) expression vector. The Bta78 gene encodes phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein (PEBP), previously reported as a B. tabaci salivary protein. A two-fold increase in whitefly feeding activity, measured by honeydew secretion, was observed on Bta78-expressing plants compared with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing TuMV-GFP control plants. By contrast, no significant effects on whitefly survival or fecundity were detected. In this study, vitellogenin, a well-conserved protein in the insect phylum associated with insect fecundity, was used as a positive control. Whiteflies exposed to vitellogenin-expressing plants exhibited a 2-2.5-fold increase in egg production relative to those infesting TuMV-GFP control plants. To the best of our knowledge, these results provide the first evidence that the PEBP-domain-carrying salivary protein Bta78 promotes whitefly feeding.
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Brazil is a world leader in agriculture, playing an important role in world food security. Agriculture has changed drastically over the years in Brazil. Different kinds of technology are being developed to increase production, reduce costs, and to decrease environmental impacts of agriculture. In 2020, the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Supply (MAPA) launched the National Bioinputs Program to promote the adoption of sustainable technologies derived from biological resources, bioinputs, many of which are microbial-based. Bioinputs aim at enhancing agricultural productivity, improving soil health, and mitigate environmental impacts. Bioinputs can be classified into three main groups according to functionality: those that promote plant growth and development, those that serve as biological pest control agents, and those that contribute to soil conditioning or restoration. Each of these categories is further subdivided according to their mode of action. In this review, we will focus on bioinputs currently commercialized in Brazil. Details about these products, including the microorganisms involved, their mode of action, and target crops will be discussed. The advantages and challenges for widespread adoption of this new technology will be explored.
Plasmodesmata (PD) play vital roles in plant growth and defense through controlling symplastic transport of important molecules. Here we report that a conserved COBRA-like protein, COBL3, is required for PD-mediated antiviral defense (PMAD) against divergent plant RNA viruses in wheat (Triticum aestivum) and tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana) via positively regulating callose accumulation. The wheat COBL3 protein, TaCOBL3, interacts with the 17K movement protein (MP) of barley yellow dwarf virus-GAV (BYDV-GAV). TaCOBL3 is associated with the plasma membrane and co-locates with 17K MP at PD. Genetic analysis with overexpression and knockout lines reveals that TaCOBL3 positively regulates wheat defense against BYDV-GAV through modulating callose accumulation at PD. Interestingly, TaCOBL3 interacts with the wheat homolog of PDLP5, a conserved key PD permeability regulator in higher plants. Silencing TaPDLP5 diminishes the elevated BYDV-GAV defense conferred by TaCOBL3 overexpression in wheat. Furthermore, transient expression of TaCOBL3 promotes callose accumulation and lowers PD permeability in tobacco cells, which is, however, largely compromised when tobacco PDLP5 is silenced. Notably, BYDV 17K MP weakens the interaction between TaCOBL3 and TaPDLP5 and inhibits their callose binding activities. Finally, silencing tobacco NbCOBL3 gene decreases callose content and attenuated host defense against two tobraviruses, one potexvirus, and one hordeivirus. Overall, our study reveals a previously unknown role of COBRA-like proteins in PMAD and provides insight into how a plant viral MP sabotages PMAD through perturbing COBL3-PDLP5 interaction to facilitate virus spread through PD. The conserved COBL3 gene may represent a valuable target for engineering broad-spectrum antiviral resistance in crop plants.
While the systemic anti-inflammatory benefits of dietary polyphenols are well-established, the specific activities of structurally diverse polyphenols remain unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the regulatory capacity of plant polyphenols on inflammatory cytokines based on the affinity differences between compounds and their targets. As ulcerative colitis (UC) is characterized by intestinal inflammatory infiltration, it was selected as the entry point for this preliminary exploration. We integrated data on the intervention of 39 plant-derived bioactive components in UC from existing studies to construct a foundational dataset for the model (105 datasets in total). Based on the available data, inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) were included as dependent variables. To enhance the assessment of intestinal inflammation, the disease activity index scores and colon length changes were also incorporated as dependent variables. Following a preliminary feasibility assessment via multiple linear regression, we developed the MPAI-SG model using a multilayer perceptron algorithm to enhance prediction accuracy. The model's performance was validated through independent studies on polyphenol-intervened UC mice. The results indicated that predicting effects based on the affinity differences between compounds and targets is feasible. The MPAI-SG model (R2 = 0.464-0.787) successfully predicted the effects of plant compounds on serum inflammatory cytokines in UC mice. Furthermore, the MPAI-SG model was utilized to predict the regulatory potential of 402 plant bioactive components on intestinal inflammation in UC mice. Leveraging the Phenol-Explorer database, 350 common foods were ranked, identifying 142 potential food ingredients for UC intervention, thereby providing a reference for dietary management of UC.
Nanotechnology has been established as a promising approach to improve heavy metal stress tolerance in horticultural crops. Melatonin (MT) is an emerging biostimulant for inducing stress resistance in plants. In this study, we evaluated the individual and combined effects of silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs; 50 mg L-1) and MT (25 mg L-1) on ornamental pepper (Capsicum annuum L., cv. Aladdin) grown in Cd-spiked soil (50 mg Cd kg-1). Morpho-physiological traits (biomass, photosynthetic pigments, leaf gas exchange, and Cd concentration), biochemical traits (proline, soluble sugars, electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide), antioxidant enzyme activities, and the expression of defense genes were analyzed. Cd stress induced oxidative damage, inhibited photosynthesis-related parameters, and suppressed plant growth. Application of SiNPs and MT reduced tissue Cd accumulation, sustained photosynthesis, and improved plant growth, with the combined treatment showing the strongest overall mitigation. These improvements were associated with lower electrolyte leakage, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide, and malondialdehyde levels, together with higher antioxidant enzyme activities and defense-gene expression. The results support a combined Cd-stress mitigation in ornamental pepper; however, the study does not demonstrate soil Cd immobilization or statistically verified synergy. Further dose-response, long-term, and molecular experiments are mandatory to elucidate the interaction between SiNPs and MT under Cd stress. The present study evaluates Cd-stress tolerance and Cd-exclusion responses of an ornamental pepper cultivar grown in Cd-spiked soil. The specific contribution is the comparative assessment of SiNPs and MT, applied separately and together, on plant growth, photosynthesis, antioxidant defense, oxidative-stress markers, defense-related gene expression, and Cd partitioning. The work therefore provides an applied phytoprotection/phytostabilization-oriented dataset, while acknowledging that field-scale phytoremediation efficiency, soil Cd bioavailability, and environmental fate of SiNPs require further investigation.