Active particles convert stored energy into directed motion and can display complex emergent behavior arising from non-equilibrium effects. In many cases, e.g., living cells, the environment is complex and heterogeneous. In this work, we investigate a two-dimensional system of soft active Brownian particles (ABPs) in quenched matrices. The matrix induces a clustering of the particles even at low density and activity. However, the nature of clustering is different in regimes of low and high activity. For low activity (Peclet number less than 10), the number of clusters increases with increasing activity and the size of the clusters decreases. The opposite is true for high activity (Peclet number greater than 50). We perform a percolation analysis using a Voronoi construction where the connectedness of empty space depends on the activity. As expected, the percolation threshold is higher for active particles (compared to passive counterparts) because they can push through the matrix. For a fixed time slice, a fraction of particles satisfy all four diagnostic criteria consistent with genuine fractional Brownian motion (FBM), including scale-free velocity correlations. Analysis of long trajectories shows that single particles display FBM-like dynamics for some stretches. Such a behavior is absent for passive particles in a matrix and for active particles without a matrix and suggests a possible physical origin for the particle-to-particle variability observed in single-particle tracking experiments in cellular environments. Polydispersity in the matrix particle size has a quantitative but not qualitative effect on the properties of the ABPs.
Unsteady, wall-bounded sedimentation of spheres at low particle Reynolds numbers, Re P ≲ 0.1 , under the influence of small elastic deformation was investigated experimentally. The complete kinematics of elastic and rigid spheres sedimenting from rest at various initial distances from a rigid plane wall in a rectangular duct were measured. Several previously unrecognized phenomena arising from fluid inertia and superimposed elastohydrodynamic effects were identified and analyzed. Among these is an inertial wall attraction, whereby particles migrate toward the wall during the initial acceleration phase. After this initial phase, rigid spheres sedimenting at Re P ≈ O ( 10 - 1 ) followed behavior consistent with classic wall-lift models, including approximately linear migration away from the wall. In contrast, at smaller Reynolds numbers, Re P ≈ O ( 10 - 2 ) , both rigid and elastic spheres exhibited persistently unsteady sedimentation, characterized by deceleration despite increasing wall distance. These results enable the formulation of a conceptual framework that classifies near-wall sedimentation regimes according to particle Reynolds number and the position of boundaries relative to the Stokes length scale. For increasing deformability, the unsteady behavior was further modulated by nonlinearities. The observations suggest the presence of an elastohydrodynamic memory effect arising from the coupling of fluid inertial forces with particle deformability. The experimental findings are supported by computational fluid dynamics simulations that provide qualitative insight into the evolving flow field. Overall, the results demonstrate that classic assumptions commonly applied to particle sedimentation in creeping flows break down in the presence of nearby boundaries and reveal a counterintuitive trend: as the particle Reynolds number decreases, fluid inertia can play an increasingly important role in governing particle motion near walls. The proposed conceptual framework may therefore aid the interpretation of the near-wall dynamics of deformable microplastic particles, for which comparable material properties and flow regimes are encountered in environmental and wastewater flows.
This study reports the tailored synthesis of functional submicron vaterite particles using ethylene glycol and natural carbohydrate-containing biopolymers, including polysaccharides (pectin, fucoidan) and glycoprotein (mucin) as crystallization modifiers. The resulting hybrid particles exhibited a narrow size distribution (~600-900 nm), high specific surface area (up to ~50 m2g-1), and enhanced stability. Biopolymer incorporation enabled efficient doxorubicin (DOX) loading (up to ~23.5 mg g-1) and allowed tunable drug release kinetics depending on the loading method. Crucially, the identity of the polysaccharide strongly influenced cell-particle interactions, leading to distinct cytotoxic profiles: mucin- and fucoidan-modified particles showed the highest DOX-mediated cytotoxicity in HepG2 2D and 3D models. This work demonstrates the rational design of biopolymer-vaterite hybrids as a tunable drug delivery platform, in which both the particle physicochemical properties and biointerface-mediated cellular interactions can be engineered.
Anthocyanins possess high potentiality as natural pH-sensitive pigments, enableing their usages as safe alternatives for monitoring food quality. This study targeted the development of smart, active, and bioactive dipping solutions (SCS), comprising anthocyanin-rich extract from Hibiscus sabdariffa (HE) with green-synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) stabilized in chitosan nanoparticles (ChNPs). The HE displayed distinct color transitions under different pH conditions, e.g. red to pink in acidic, violet in neutral, and green to yellow in alkaline media, signifying its potential as a freshness indicator. Green-synthesized ZnONPs exhibited smaller particle sizes (6.42-15.92 nm) compared to ZnONPs prepared without HE (26.92-41.24 nm). XRD confirmed ZnONP crystallinity, while UV-Vis absorption at 377 nm verified nanoparticle formation. Zeta potential values indicated stability, with ZnONPs (- 28.73 mV), and ChNPs (+ 36.4 mV). The SCS demonstrated strong antioxidant activity (89.29% DPPH scavenging) and antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. FTIR confirmed successful component interactions, and SEM analysis verified nanocomposite formation. Application of SCS on Nile perch fillets stored at 4 °C effectively delayed spoilage, extending shelf life by up to six days. Moreover, the color transition from red to green during storage provided a visual signal of quality decline. These findings highlight the potential of anthocyanin-based nanocomposite systems with ZnONPs and ChNPs and as eco-friendly smart packaging solutions for real-time fish quality monitoring and preservation.
Periprosthetic osteolysis (PPO) is the main cause of aseptic loosening after total joint arthroplasty, often resulting from wear particle-induced osteogenic impairment. Morroniside (Mor), a major bioactive iridoid glycoside from C. officinalis, has been shown to have protective effects in osteoporosis. However, its efficacy against wear particle-induced osteolysis remains elusive. Herein, we evaluated the anti-PPO efficacy of Mor using a CoCrMo particle (CoP)-induced murine calvarial osteolysis model, and investigated the protective effects and signalling pathways associated with osteogenesis in CoP-stimulated mice and MC3T3-E1 cells. The results demonstrated that Mor effectively attenuated CoP-induced osteolysis in mice. Additionally, it reversed osteogenic impairment in both CoP-stimulated mice and MC3T3-E1 cells. Mechanistically, this protection was mediated by activating the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway in both in vivo and in vitro models. Notably, inhibiting the Wnt signalling pathway with XAV939 abolished the protective effects of Mor in both models. These findings indicate that Mor alleviates CoP-induced osteolysis by restoring osteogenic function via the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent for PPO.
The fractal study plays an important role in predicting the properties of materials and the underlying growth mechanisms in self-aggregating systems such as colloids and proteins, since such systems form highly irregular, scale-invariant structures. In this work, we performed a simulation study of the aggregation of spherical patchy particles interacting via four irreversible patches arranged in a square geometry along with an isotropic potential whose interaction strength can be varied. Structural analysis shows that at low isotropic strengths, hexagonal lattices form, whereas at higher isotropic strengths, cubic structures are more prominent locally. The slopes obtained from the calculation of the structure factor revealed the presence of both mass and surface fractals. This was independently confirmed by calculating the mass fractal dimension from the cluster size distribution and the surface fractals from the surface roughness measurements of the cluster, revealing that both mass and surface fractals are possible in irreversible patchy particle systems.
A comprehensive computational investigation of the self-assembly behavior of two-component mixtures composed of patchy nanoparticles (PNPs) and isotropic nanoparticles (INPs) was conducted. Both bulk systems (in two and three dimensions) and confined systems subjected to seven distinct external fields were examined, including nonselective fields and fields preferentially interacting with one component. In two-dimensional (2D) systems, density-dependent organization into square or triangular lattices was observed. The triangular phase exhibited two distinct morphologies depending on mixture composition, with PNPs forming a Kagomé sublattice in one of them. In three-dimensional (3D) systems, a fcc crystalline structure was identified both in the bulk and under confinement. This structure consists of two interpenetrating sublattices: a bcc lattice formed by PNPs and a sc lattice formed by INPs. Furthermore, the growth direction and stacking sequence of the fcc crystals were found to depend on the strength and selectivity of the external field. These results provide insight into the controlled design of complex colloidal architectures through confinement and external field modulation.
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) underpin advances across numerous applications, yet most syntheses still rely on added chemical reductants and organic additives, constraining sustainability. Here, we report an aqueous, reductant-free route to AuNPs that leverages hydrophobic interfaces under mild conditions. When NaOH is added to aqueous HAuCl4 to reach basic conditions (pH 10-13), where [Au(OH)4]- predominates, AuNPs form spontaneously upon contact with hydrophobic fluoropolymer surfaces (e.g., PFA) without added reductants or surfactants. In contrast, almost no AuNP formation is observed on hydrophilic glass under otherwise identical conditions, indicating that interfacial rather than bulk properties govern nucleation and growth. Systematic pH tuning revealed that AuNP yield reaches a pronounced maximum at pH ≈ 12 and becomes negligible at very high alkalinity (pH 14), while particle size is tunable by varying HAuCl4 and NaOH concentrations. These results, together with the suppression of AuNP formation at high ionic strength, indicate that interfacial ion distributions, rather than bulk pH alone, play a decisive role in the reaction. A consistent interpretation is that hydrophobic interfaces promote preferential adsorption of OH-, giving rise to an electric double layer (EDL) with an ion distribution distinct from the bulk. Within this nanoscale-confined environment, ultrasmall Au(III) hydroxide-like species may form and, owing to strong size effects, undergo low-temperature transformation to yield AuNPs. These results establish interfacial EDL confinement as a basis for sustainable, reductant-free nanomaterial synthesis and suggest extension of this principle to other aqueous metal systems.
Polymer-based dielectrics are widely employed in electrostatic energy storage capacitors serving as pulse power supply owing to their lightweight nature and rapid charge-discharge capability. However, their intrinsically low dielectric constant severely limits energy storage density. Although high-dielectric-constant nanofillers are commonly incorporated to enhance permittivity, organic-inorganic interfacial incompatibility often induces particle agglomeration and structural defects. In this work, we propose a confined co-doping strategy for structured polymer dielectrics, wherein BaTiO3 and Al2O3 nanoparticles are co-doed within the ferroelectric core P(VDF-HFP) of coaxial fibers and undergo self-assembly. This approach simultaneously enhances both energy density and charge-discharge efficiency. As a result, the 1 wt% BaTiO3/1 wt% Al2O3 core co-doping composite dielectric achieves a discharged energy density of 19.2 J/cm3 and a charge-discharge efficiency of 81.0%, and maintains stable performance over 1 × 105 cycles under an electric field of 400 kV/mm. This confined co-doping strategy thus provides an effective and scalable route for developing polymer-based dielectrics with high energy density and high reliability.
Atmospheric deposition is an exposure pathway for mountain protected ecosystems. However, the responses of microplastic (MP) number and mass deposition to visitor activity and vegetation buffers remain unclear. We monitored bulk deposition over one hydrological year at 19 background, lakeshore, and vegetated-slope sites in the Jiuzhaigou World Natural Heritage Site. MP numbers were quantified by stereomicroscopy with micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR) verification. MP masses were measured with thermal desorption/pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (TD/Py-GC-MS). Annual mean deposition was 131 MPs m-2 d-1 and 197 μg m-2 d-1. Tourism-exposed sites exhibited a 2.8-fold higher number flux and a 6.2-fold increased mass flux compared to low-tourism sites. The larger mass difference coincided with polymer composition differences. Polyethylene and polypropylene dominated deposition at the background sites, and polyethylene terephthalate and polystyrene were enriched at the roadside sites. Vegetated slope sites showed 27% lower number flux and 53% lower mass flux than lakeshore sites and finer particle sizes. Wet season deposition was higher, whereas the mass difference between roadside and background sites was larger in the dry season. Particle number and polymer mass provide complementary exposure metrics for visitor corridor management and vegetation buffer conservation.
Casein kinase 2 (CK2) is a key regulator of cancer cell survival and proliferation, making it an attractive therapeutic target. Quinalizarin is a potent CK2 inhibitor; however, its clinical application is limited by suboptimal delivery and bioavailability. This study aimed to develop and characterize a quinalizarin-gold nanoparticle nanocomplex (QGNPs) and evaluate its potential to enhance anticancer activity in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). QGNPs were synthesized using sulfhydryl calcium acetate as a linking agent. The nanocomplex was characterized by UV-Vis spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential analysis, and transmission electron microscopy. Drug loading and release profiles were assessed using UV-Vis spectroscopy. In vitro cytotoxicity was evaluated in A549 lung cancer cells using MTT assay, and cellular uptake was examined by confocal laser scanning microscopy. QGNPs demonstrated successful conjugation, with an increase in particle size from ~ 15 to 85.18 ± 8.25 nm and a zeta potential shift to - 19.59 ± 5.62 mV. The nanocomplex exhibited pH-responsive drug release, with significantly higher quinalizarin release under acidic conditions (pH 5.0) compared to physiological pH (7.4). In vitro studies showed that QGNPs significantly enhanced cytotoxic activity compared to free quinalizarin, with lower IC₅₀ values. Confocal microscopy confirmed efficient intracellular uptake of QGNPs in A549 cells. QGNPs represent a promising nanocarrier system for improving the delivery and anticancer efficacy of quinalizarin in NSCLC. The enhanced cytotoxicity and pH-responsive release suggest potential for targeted cancer therapy. However, further studies are required to elucidate underlying mechanisms and to evaluate radiosensitization and in vivo therapeutic efficacy.
The nitrogen removal performance of constructed wetlands (CWs) is facing potential threats from tire wear particles (TWPs). However, the impact and potential mechanism of their continuous accumulation remain unclear, especially the comparison of different aging pathways. Therefore, this study constructed CWs microcosm to compare the effects of photo-aged (PA) and thermal-aged (TA) TWPs on its nitrogen removal performance and explore its main mechanism pathways. The results showed that both mainly reduced the TN removal rate by affecting NH4+-N removal, and PA-TWPs had a more significant reduction than TA-TWPs. Both pathways alter the physicochemical properties of TWPs and additive accumulation in CWs, thereby affecting nitrogen removal performance through plant oxidative stress and microbial nitrogen transformation. However, their dominant mechanisms differ. PA-TWPs group synergistically reduced the TN removal performance by inducing plant oxidative stress and inhibiting the abundance of nitrifying bacteria (Nitrospira, Candidatus Nitrotoga). TA-TWPs group not only inhibited the abundance of the aforementioned nitrifying bacteria, but also indirectly suppressed TN removal performance by affecting nitrogen removal pathway of plants, and promoted the abundance of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium bacteria Anaeromyxobacter, resulting in the accumulation of NH4+. This study emphasized the microscopic mechanism behind the differences in nitrogen removal performance driven by TWPs from different aging pathways, providing a theoretical basis and practical direction for assessing their ecological risks and optimizing CWs nitrogen removal performance.
Experimental observations of the low-lying states in ^{12}Be and their accurate modeling play an essential role in understanding the disappearance of the N=8 magic number. Long-standing experimental ambiguities have been clarified using an one-neutron adding (d, p) reaction on ^{11}Be using the ISOLDE Solenoidal Spectrometer at CERN's HIE-ISOLDE facility. The single-particle energies of 1s_{1/2}, 0d_{5/2}, and 0p_{1/2} orbitals in ^{12}Be have been determined from the extracted spectroscopic factors. A significant reduction between the separation of 1s_{1/2} and 0p_{1/2} orbitals is found in comparison with the carbon isotones, highlighting the breakdown of the N=8 shell. These observations serve as an important test of different effects incorporated in theoretical models. It is found that two synergistic mechanisms, core deformation and weak binding, are responsible for the N=8 shell breaking and the exotic near-threshold phenomena observed in ^{12}Be, including the narrow unnatural-parity resonance 0_{1}^{-} and the possible halolike nature of the 0_{2}^{+} isomer.
The current study investigated the impact of supplementing polyphenols extracted from shredded, steam-exploded pine particles (PSPP) on the performance, gene expression, and gut metagenome of broilers exposed to cyclic heat stress (CHS). A total of 216 chickens were distributed into a 2 (temperature) by 3 (diets) design, with each treatment consisting of six replicates of six chickens. Specifically, chickens were fed diets containing 0% PSPP, 0.5% PSPP, and 1% PSPP and exposed to two temperature conditions: CHS (31°C) and Thermoneutral (NT, 21°C). The CHS was conducted for 6 hours every day for 7 consecutive days. Final body weight, average daily gain, and average daily feed intake (ADFI) were decreased, while feed conversion ratio and rectal temperature were increased in heat-exposed chickens. Dietary PSPP supplementation enhanced ADFI. The weight of the liver, bursa, and length of the jejunum and ileum were decreased in heat-exposed chickens. Plasma cholesterol was increased, and triglycerides were decreased in heat-exposed chickens. After heat exposure, gene expression of ZO1, ZO2, GLP2, NOX1, SOD, GPX, HSP70, HSP90, NRF2, TLR2, and TLR4 increased in the jejunum. GLP2 gene expression was similar in 1%PSPP exposed to HS in comparison to the entire NT-exposed chickens. Concerning microbiota analysis, alpha diversity indices, such as Shannon and Gini-Simpson, were increased following CHS exposure. Beta diversity, measured through unweighted and weighted UniFrac distances, showed temperature, dose, and interaction effects. The relative abundance of the phylum Candidatus Melainabacteria was increased, while Tenericutes populations were decreased in heat-exposed chickens. Furthermore, a total of thirty genera were identified as microbial biomarkers of CHS. Interestingly, the relative abundance of five pathogenic bacterial genera was found to be decreased in the 0.5%PSPP treatment. Overall, CHS negatively influences growth performance, modulates the expression of the gut antioxidant-related genes, and favors the colonization of pathogenic bacteria. However, 0.5% PSPP may mitigate CHS by reducing pathogen colonization in the gut of broilers.
The intrinsic trade-off between colloidal processability and macroscopic electrical conductivity has long hindered the advancement of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) in precision flexible electronics. While pursuing nanoscale colloidal dispersions typically leads to a proliferation of grain boundaries that drastically degrade the material's electrical properties, we demonstrate that this trade-off can be decoupled at the level of polymerization kinetics. Herein, we propose a nanoreactor strategy leveraging the "morphological inheritance" of emulsified monomers. By modulating the pre-emulsification energy from mechanical stirring to high-pressure homogenization (HPH), we achieved a controlled, cross-scale reduction in colloidal particle size from 2911 nm down to 76 nm. Notably, despite the abundance of physical grain boundaries introduced by this miniaturization, the resulting HPH films maintain an exceptional electrical conductivity of 373 S cm-1, comparable to the 409 S cm-1 observed in micrometer-scale systems, while achieving mirror-like surface flatness (Rq = 1.06 nm). Grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) reveals the underlying crystallization mechanism: nanoconfined templates generated by extreme cavitational shear force the PEDOT chains to overcome conformational disorder, adopting a highly extended and ordered arrangement. This confinement effect unexpectedly extends the crystal coherence length (CCL) to 12.35 Å. By enhancing charge delocalization within the crystalline domains, this microscopic ordering fundamentally compensates for the transport resistance induced by grain boundary accumulation. Furthermore, the HPH nanocolloids exhibit excellent fluid processing stability (viscosity of 12 mPa s), and their ultrahigh specific surface area endows the films with outstanding interfacial electrochemical capacitance. Ultimately, this work establishes a paradigm in which "microscopic ordering compensates for macroscopic defects," providing crucial physicochemical criteria for the rational design of high-performance conducting polymers.
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Metal particle size has a significant influence on the activity of nanozymes, yet size-dependent nanozymatic catalysis under the same metal loadings in full scale (from single atom, cluster to nanoparticle) is a challenging task and has been rarely reported. Herein, porous SiO2 nanoflower surface-confined Pt-based nanozymes with the same metal loadings but different particle sizes were rationally designed and synthesized for antibacterial and cascade catalytic tumor therapy. The particle size-activity relationship is well established, presenting a volcanic curve, and the PtNC/SiO2 nanocluster (NC) nanozyme exhibits optimized peroxidase-like activity and bactericidal efficacy compared with SAzyme and nanozyme. Furthermore, a synergistic therapeutic platform (Lap@PtNC/SiO2) is constructed through the adsorption of the prodrug β-lapachone (Lap), achieving high-efficiency cascade enzymatic catalysis for tumor therapy thereby. The cluster nanozymes not only present optimized activity during the full-size engineering but also demonstrate great potential in next-generation antibacterial and tumor catalytic therapy.
Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a well-established occupational carcinogen, widely utilized in industrial processes such as electroplating, surface treatment, and ferrochromium production. It is also generated as a by-product of welding activities. Accurate monitoring of occupational exposure to Cr(VI) is essential for protecting workers' health. This review aims to critically assess the main challenges associated with existing environmental monitoring techniques for Cr(VI) in welding operations and to propose practical strategies to address these limitations. A systematic literature review was conducted by consulting 3 scientific databases (Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed). Studies assessing occupational exposure to Cr(VI) published since 2014, were included and analyzed in terms of methods, dosimetric parameters measures, and possible alternative approaches for Cr(VI) characterization. The reviewed studies employed diverse environmental monitoring strategies for occupational Cr(VI) exposure assessment, with substantial heterogeneity in sampling conventions, analytical workflows, and speciation capability. Some studies additionally reported biological measurements and/or used exposure modeling as supportive approaches; however, these were not systematically reviewed as primary endpoints. Findings confirm that occupational exposure to Cr(VI) remains a concern in multiple industries, with exposure levels varying according to tasks, process characteristics, and preventive measures. However, major challenges persist. Key issues include the difficulty of distinguishing Cr species, the instability of Cr(VI) during sampling and analysis, and the scarcity of reliable speciation data. Furthermore, particle size distribution-especially the role of ultrafine particles-remains poorly characterized despite its toxicological importance. Innovative tools, including advanced analytical methods and modeling approaches, show promise but require further validation. To fill research gaps and improve risk assessment, future studies should (i) accurately differentiate between chemical species of metals; (ii) adopt methods capable of measuring particle size distribution, with focus on ultrafine fractions; and (iii) systematically collect contextual data on Personal Protective Equipment use and work activities.
Very high energy electron (VHEE) radiotherapy has gained growing interest owing to its potential to reach deep-seated targets and induce FLASH effect. Dose calculations can be performed using analytical or Monte Carlo (MC) methods. Analytical approaches enable rapid dose computation but suffer from limited accuracy in heterogeneous media, whereas MC methods provide high accuracy at the expense of substantial computational cost. Macro Monte Carlo (MMC) is a local-to-global method designed to improve dose calculation efficiency compared to general-purpose MC methods. In MMC, particle transport is based on precalculated transport data generated with general-purpose MC simulations on specific geometries, which is subsequently used to model particle transport over macroscopic steps within the absorber, avoiding computationally expensive microscopic tracking. MMC made it to a standard electron dose calculation engine in a commercial treatment planning system. However, to date, MMC has not been investigated for electron energies above 25 MeV. To develop and validate an MMC framework for VHEE radiotherapy that improves dose calculation efficiency while preserving accuracy compared to general-purpose MC methods for electron energies up to 250 MeV. Local simulations were performed using EGSnrc with monoenergetic electron pencil beams incident perpendicularly on spherical geometries (0.2-25 MeV) with radii of 0.5-3 mm, and slab geometries (25-250 MeV) of 2 mm thickness, composed of various materials. Physical quantities including energy loss, lateral displacement, and angular distributions of primary and secondary particles were scored and stored in a database. This database was subsequently used to transport electrons step-by-step in the global simulations, employing slab-based transport at energies ≥25 MeV and switching to spherical geometries for electron energies <25 MeV to account for increased scattering. Energy deposition was scored in a 3D dose grid. MMC dose calculations were validated against EGSnrc for monoenergetic VHEE beams (50-250 MeV) incident on homogeneous and heterogeneous slab phantoms, using pencil beams, parallel spot beams with 1 mm radius, and parallel beams with a field size of 5 × 5 cm2. MMC and EGSnrc dose calculations were also performed for two patient CT datasets. Comparisons between MMC and EGSnrc were conducted using integrated depth dose curves, lateral dose profiles, and 3D gamma analysis with 2%/1 mm and 2%/2 mm (global) criteria and a 10% dose threshold. All simulations were performed with statistical uncertainties below 1%, and computation times were recorded. Integrated depth dose curves and lateral dose profiles agreed within 2% of the maximum dose for all cases considered. For homogeneous and heterogeneous phantoms, MMC dose distributions yielded gamma passing rates above 97% (2%/1 mm) and 99% (2%/2 mm), respectively, compared to EGSnrc. For patient CT datasets, gamma passing rates exceeded 94% (2%/1 mm) and 97% (2%/2 mm). Overall, MMC achieved up to a 27-fold improvement in dose calculation efficiency compared to EGSnrc. An MMC framework for VHEE dose calculation was successfully developed and validated for electron energies up to 250 MeV. The method demonstrated good agreement with EGSnrc while providing up to an order-of-magnitude improvement in dose calculation efficiency for the studied cases.