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The role of individuals' solo digital game-playing experience in influencing their feelings of loneliness is an important research area that has received considerable attention from researchers. However, we still know less about how the digital game-playing experience, in general, and the multiplayer digital game-playing experience, in particular, influence employees' loneliness in the workplace. In addition, although there are limited studies investigating the link between digital game playing and loneliness, the literature presents conflicting arguments and findings. Researchers have omitted various intervening psychological factors, such as boosting behavior and escapism motivation, as well as task characteristics, including task routineness, from the relationship between the multiplayer digital game-playing experience and loneliness. This study involved 120 employees from both service and manufacturing industries, representing a diverse range of ages, genders, and professional experiences, who participated in multiplayer digital gaming at work. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire measuring their multiplayer gaming experience, boosting behavior, feelings of workplace loneliness, self-expansion escapism, and the routine nature of their tasks. We employed a PLS-SEM approach using SmartPLS 4.0 to examine the relationships among these variables. Our study did not uncover a direct relationship between the experience of playing multiplayer digital games and feelings of loneliness. Instead, our findings revealed a significant serial mediation effect in the relationship between multiplayer digital game-playing experience and workplace loneliness, mediated explicitly through the enhancement of boosting behavior and self-expansion escapism. Our analysis indicated that (i) there exists a positive relationship between the experience of multiplayer digital game-playing and boosting behavior; (ii) boosting behavior is positively correlated with self-expansion escapism. Furthermore, we identified that self-expansion exhibits a negative relationship with workplace loneliness. Additionally, we observed that higher task routineness significantly attenuated the serial mediating relationship identified in our analysis. This study enhances the theoretical understanding of the importance of digital game play at work and offers practical implications for designing digital game activities to improve social relationships and reduce employee loneliness.
AbstractCultural collaboration can support a more holistic approach to nursing care in managing complex conditions, such as pressure ulcers. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of multiplayer, interactive, and noninteractive virtual patient simulations on knowledge, effectiveness, satisfaction, and self-confidence regarding pressure ulcer management among Portuguese and Turkish nursing students. The quasi-experimental, pre-posttest design study was conducted between March and July 2025; data were obtained from 52 nursing students (Experimental Group: 26; Control Group: 26) in Turkey and Portugal using the "Personal Profile Form," "Pressure Ulcer Prevention Knowledge Assessment Instrument," "Simulation Effectiveness Tool-Modified," "Student Satisfaction and Self-Confidence in Learning Scale," and "Structured Debriefing Questionnaire." Between-group comparisons of "Pressure Ulcer Prevention Knowledge Assessment Instrument" posttest scores revealed significant differences in the "Preventive Measures to Reduce the Duration of Pressure/Shear" subscale and total scores. Within the experimental group, pre-post comparisons revealed significant moderate improvements in the same subscale and total scores. "Simulation Effectiveness Tool-Modified" pre-post comparisons in the experimental group showed significant improvements in "Learning," "Confidence," "Debriefing" subscales, and total scores. "Student Satisfaction and Self-Confidence in Learning" scores improved significantly only in the experimental group. Qualitative data analysis identified themes, including Clinical Competence and Skill Acquisition, Reflective Practice, Communication and Collaborative Practice, Simulation Fidelity and Challenges, Confidence and Clinical Readiness, and Affective Response to Simulation. This study demonstrates that multiplayer, interactive virtual patient simulation is associated with improvements in nursing students' knowledge, perceived simulation effectiveness, and satisfaction in pressure injury management.
This brief presents the adaptive optimal prescribed performance tracking solutions for the multiplayer nonlinear systems based on the adaptive critic learning scheme, where the tracking errors are constrained to a predefined bounded set. First, the general optimal tracking solutions of multiplayer nonlinear systems are presented. Every optimal tracking solution of multiple players consists of the steady-state part and the adaptive feedback part. The steady-state part can be obtained directly according to the tracking signal and system dynamics. Then, the adaptive feedback part can be studied with the prescribed performance constraints and adaptive critic learning such that multiple value functions achieve a Nash equilibrium with error constraints. Moreover, the convergence of the critic network weight is analyzed by the Lyapunov algorithm. Finally, simulation results and experiments are presented to demonstrate the satisfactory performance of the proposed method.
The optimal tracking control problem for multiplayer differential game systems (MDGS) with unknown dynamics is investigated in this article. A two-stage asynchronous learning scheme is proposed to achieve Nash equilibrium solutions without requiring initial admissible control policies. In the first stage, stabilizing control policies are constructed through a homotopic-based iterative process. In the second stage, an asynchronous policy iteration (PI) method is employed, in which players sequentially update their policies using partial real-time information, contributing to improved convergence efficiency compared to synchronous approaches. The proposed scheme is further extended to a data-driven framework, relaxing the requirement of explicit system dynamic information. Convergence under stabilizability and detectability conditions is theoretically proven. Finally, two simulation examples are conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in tracking a sinusoidal reference. Additionally, comparison experiments are provided to highlight the superiority of the proposed algorithm.
This article investigates reach-avoid games involving defenders equipped with capture radii, where both defenders and attackers have different speeds. The main challenge lies in using geometric methods to analyze different speed ratios, construct barriers, or defensive advantage angles, and divide the state space into defensive and offensive advantage regions. This article proposes optimal analytical strategies for players based on the corresponding payoff functions, depending on the attacker's position within different winning regions under various speed ratios. In addition, we demonstrate the existence of a unique optimal target point within the offensive advantage region. Unlike numerical methods, which are limited by computational complexity and real-time application capabilities, the proposed method allows for the precise calculation of barriers and real-time updates in nonpoint capture scenarios. Finally, simulation results validate the effectiveness of the constructed barriers in multiplayer reach-avoid games.
Multiplayer video games are rich settings for observing complex social and organizational dynamics such as communication, socioemotional exchange, and coordination, yet comparative evidence across player profiles and contexts remains limited. This study aims to quantify and compare in-game communicative functions in Call of Duty: Warzone across player profiles (casual vs. esports) and, within esports, across different contexts (streaming vs. tournament). We conducted a quantitative content analysis of 5,915 utterances from 38 players across 29 gaming sessions. The study results indicate distinct communication styles: Casual players prioritize social interaction and emotional expression, whereas esports players emphasize strategic discourse. In addition, esports players in streaming contexts exhibit greater emotional engagement compared to tournament settings. These results, showing that gaming communication is highly context-sensitive, highlight the psychological impact of competitive play, advancing the understanding of gaming communication dynamics and player behaviors.
We study the leader-follower consensus problem in multiagent systems with heterogeneous agent dynamics and multiple internal players per agent, each with distinct and interaffected objectives. Formulated as a multiplayer differential game per agent, the goal is to achieve output consensus among all agents while ensuring Nash equilibrium controls across each agent's internal players. To address this challenge, we introduce a distributed control framework that integrates both feedforward (regulator-based) and feedback (game-theoretic Riccati-based) components. We further design a FilterNet reinforcement learning (RL) architecture that solves the control solutions while eliminating the need for large-scale distributed data storage. Organized into four layers, FilterNet handles admissible policy identification, online initialization, asynchronous updates for Nash policy convergence, and real-time regulator solutions. This design reduces data requirements, ensures initial excitation, and accelerates convergence. Theoretical guarantees establish conditions for solvability and convergence. Numerical simulations and comparisons with existing methods confirm the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed approach.
The relationship between video game experience and cognitive plasticity remains a central focus of research, particularly given its potential applications in clinical rehabilitation. Although both first-person shooter (FPS) and multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) games have been shown to enhance cognitive functions, the specific associations between the cognitive effects of different game genres and brain network structure remain unclear. This study aimed to examine whether long-term experience with FPS and MOBA games is associated with genre-specific patterns of cortical thickness covariation across brain regions. A total of 116 male participants (mean age 21.2, SD 1.9 y) were recruited via online advertisements for this cross-sectional study. On the basis of strict inclusion criteria (gaming experience >5 years, gaming frequency >5 hours per week, and ranking within the top 15%), participants were categorized into FPS players (n=39, 33.6%) and MOBA players (n=40, 34.5%). An additional group of healthy controls (n=37, 31.9%) with no gaming experience in the past 2 years was also included. High-resolution structural magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired using a 3-T scanner. Individualized differential structural covariance networks were constructed based on the cortical thickness values extracted from 68 brain regions using the Desikan-Killiany atlas. Statistical analysis included one-way ANOVA to identify significant structural covariance edges (SCEs), network-based statistic prediction analysis for weekly gaming hours, and support vector machine analysis for group classification. One-way ANOVA identified 30 significant SCEs across the 3 groups (P<.001, false discovery rate corrected). Post hoc analysis (P<.02, Bonferroni corrected) revealed that, compared to the MOBA and control groups, the FPS group exhibited 2 dominant networks: a temporo-fronto-parietal network anchored in auditory regions and a visuo-sensorimotor network. Both gaming groups showed enhanced SCEs in visual-attentional networks compared to the control group. The network-based statistic-predict analysis demonstrated that structural covariance matrices could effectively predict weekly gaming hours in FPS players (r=0.34, 95% CI 0.26-0.42). The positive edges primarily formed a temporo-fronto-parietal-occipital network, whereas the negative edges were centered on the entorhinal cortex. The support vector machine classifier successfully differentiated FPS players from controls (area under the curve=82.95%) and from MOBA players (area under the curve=72.37%). Long-term FPS and MOBA gaming experiences are associated with different brain structural network architectures. The uniqueness of FPS gaming lies in the extensive structural covariance between the primary auditory cortex and regions supporting visual attention and sensorimotor processing, which may reflect higher demands on cognitive skills. This suggests potential utility in auditory-visual rehabilitation and provides a theoretical basis for the assessment and selection of professional electronic sports players. However, the negative edges involving the entorhinal cortex in FPS players indicate that an overreliance on response learning strategies may come at the expense of the spatial memory system. Consequently, caution is warranted when applying such games to ameliorate age-related memory decline.
Compared to traditional offline collaboration, current online collaboration often lacks nonverbal social cues, resulting in lower efficiency and a reduced emotional connection between teammates. To address this issue, this study used a two-player collaborative puzzle game as the experimental setting to explore the impact of two nonverbal social cues, emotion and gaze, on collaborative experience and performance. Specifically, this study designed four collaborative modes: with and without teammates' facial expressions, and with and without teammates' gaze points. Sixty-two participants took part in the experiment, and each pair was required to complete these four patterns. Subsequently, we analyzed their collaborative experience through subjective questionnaires, objective facial expressions, and gaze overlap rates. The experimental results revealed that teammates' gaze could effectively enhance collaborative efficiency, while facial expression is key to optimizing subjective experience. Combining both cues further acquires advantages in cognitive and emotional dimensions, leading to improved performance outcomes. The study also indicated that facial expressions could alleviate the social pressure triggered by shared gaze from teammates. Additionally, the study also examined how personality differences influenced collaborative experiences and performance. The results indicated that individuals with high agreeableness actively seek social cues, leading to more positive collaborative experiences. This study provides empirical evidence for understanding the interactive mechanisms of cognitive and emotional processes during online collaboration, and points the way toward designing adaptive, personalized intelligent collaborative systems.
Online games developed to improve mental health symptoms are reportedly effective among game users. However, it has not been verified whether massive multiplayer online games (MMOGs) developed for leisure purposes are effective in improving users' mental health symptoms. Based on 2 theoretical frameworks, this study examined whether MMOGs improve depression and social anxiety. First, behavioral activation theory posits that depressive symptoms improve through the repetition of reward-linked behaviors. Second, inhibitory learning theory suggests that exposure to social stimuli (eg, being the center of attention) previously perceived as threatening reduces fear responses over time. Participants were Pigg Party users with at least 3 months of previous experience. Overall, 1105 participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental (n=548) or waitlist groups (n=557). Participants in the experimental group were instructed to ring a friend's room bell (an action that clearly draws attention) on weekdays and to customize their avatars on weekends. Those completing ≥60% of the tasks received additional monthly rewards. The waitlist group received no interventions but was given random additional rewards. Both groups completed questionnaires on depression (Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology) and social anxiety (Brief Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale) at baseline, and again at 1, 2, and 3 months. The experimental group showed a significantly higher frequency of bell ringing compared to that of the waitlist group (standardized mean difference [SMD]=0.13), whereas no significant difference was observed between the groups in avatar customization frequency. As predicted, the experimental group showed a significantly greater reduction in depressive symptoms, with a small effect size observed (SMD=-0.12). However, no significant difference was determined between groups in social anxiety symptoms. This study demonstrated that MMOGs, when combined with administrator-led interventions, can reduce users' depressive symptoms, albeit with a small effect size. Further studies are needed to test the intervention effects on social anxiety symptoms in MMOGs, with improved exposure scenarios.
This dataset presents 7221 exocentric (third-person) frame images of hand gestures recorded during multiplayer tabletop games including Ludo, Poker, and Snakes and Ladders. The recordings were made using a Google Pixel 6a smartphone at 30 frames per second (FPS), and frame images were extracted at a fixed interval of one frame every four seconds. Each extracted image was resized to 512 × 512 pixels. The dataset captures two-, three-, and four-person gameplay sessions under four distinct lighting conditions (natural, white, yellow, and dim), reflecting realistic and varied visual environments. The frames include natural gesture dynamics with motion blur, occlusions, and object manipulations, offering authentic interaction data. This dataset supports research in computer vision, human-computer interaction, and Extended Reality (XR), enabling studies in gesture recognition, hand-object interaction, and occlusion handling. It can also be applied in supervised and unsupervised learning tasks, evaluation of gesture-tracking algorithms, and XR benchmarking for real-world gaming interactions. By providing authentic multi-person interaction footage from consistent top-down viewpoints, this dataset facilitates advancements of gesture recognition systems designed for collaborative environments and interactive gaming applications.
Cooperation often depends on individuals avoiding exploitation and interacting preferentially with other cooperators. We explore how context-dependent migration influences the evolution of cooperation in spatially structured populations. Individuals interact in small groups through public goods games and reproduce with possible dispersal. Cooperators migrate more frequently when surrounded by defectors, while defectors disperse uniformly. This behavioral asymmetry reflects realistic differences in mobility and social responsiveness. Our results show that conditional migration can promote cooperation by enabling cooperators to escape defector-rich environments and cluster together. The effectiveness of this mechanism depends on baseline migration rates, group size, and the sensitivity of cooperators to local conditions. We identify parameter ranges where cooperation is favored even under conditions that would typically hinder its evolution. These findings highlight how behavioral plasticity and dispersal strategies can interact with population structure to support the emergence of cooperation.
Literature suggests that individual differences in tendencies toward gaming disorder (GD) may be associated with characteristics of the video games people prefer. We examined how game genre, multiplayer capability, and platform relate to GD tendencies assessed using both APA (DSM-5) and WHO (ICD-11) frameworks in a large international sample of gamers. We analyzed cross-sectional online data from 116,047 gamers. Participants completed validated measures of GD symptoms aligned with DSM-5 and ICD-11 and reported the genre, multiplayer capability, and platform of their currently preferred game. Associations were examined using bivariate and multivariate analyses. We additionally applied a Random Forest model to evaluate the predictive contribution of game-related variables to GD scores. GD levels were highest among participants preferring games with multiplayer capabilities, while positive associations with shooter and casual games were particularly evident among console users. In contrast, puzzle, platformer, and board games showed negative associations with GD scores. Players preferring desktop or laptop computers reported higher GD scores than those favoring consoles or small devices. In Random Forest models, game genre and multiplayer capability were modestly predictive of GD scores (R ≈ .08-.15) with predictive accuracy being higher for participants who used console and desktop computers and lowest among small-device users. Multiplayer capability and preferred genre were consistently related to GD tendencies across DSM-5 and ICD-11 measures. However, these variables alone offered limited predictive power, indicating that GD risk is only partly explained by game characteristics and likely depends on broader individual and contextual factors.
Reinforcement learning (RL), a key artificial intelligence technique, has been widely studied and applied over the past two decades to solve various optimization control problems. Generally speaking, there are two basic frameworks for RL-based control design, i.e., on-policy and off-policy RL (OffP-RL). The essential distinction between the two frameworks lies in whether the policy used to generate training data is the behavior policy or the target policy. In on-policy RL-based control methods, the data used for evaluating the target control policy at each iteration must be collected from the system under the target policy itself. In contrast, in OffP-RL methods, the system data is generated by other behavior control policies. It addresses the inadequate exploration problem in on-policy RL methods, making OffP-RL methods more practical and easier to implement. In this article, the recent advances in OffP-RL-based control methods are classified into three categories based on the number of controllers/players involved, i.e., single-/two-/multiplayer. For the single-player case, it is an optimal control problem, which aims to use OffP-RL to learn the optimal control policy, which minimizes the performance index. In the two-player case, most works focus on the $H_{\infty } $ control problem and the two-player zero-sum game, using learning to find the Nash equilibrium. In the multiplayer case, a multiplayer game involves a single system with multiple control inputs, while a multiagent system consists of multiple systems with independent control inputs. Finally, related applications of OffP-RL-based control and future work are analyzed.
This article studies a multiplayer capture-the-flag (CTF) differential game, where multiple pursuers try to intercept evaders whose objectives are to first reach a flag and then reach a return region. The critical point is that the flag and the return region are half-planes. Our goal is to address the problem of determining the game winner and computing the pursuit winning strategies. By decomposing the complex multiplayer game into many manageable subgames involving multiple pursuers and one evader, we present the strategies under which the pursuers guarantee to win against the evader, regardless of the evader's strategy, with the necessary and sufficient conditions to determine the game winner. We then extend the results to the cases of the flag-staying time and the minimum safe flag position. To reduce the computational burdens, we prove that if multiple pursuers can ensure the pursuit winning against an evader, then at most two pursuers in this coalition are required. Finally, we solve the multiplayer game by evaluating pairwise subgame outcomes for pursuer-evader matchings. Numerical and experimental results are presented to illustrate the theoretical conclusions.
Classifying and ranking academic authorship lists is complex in practice, despite existing frameworks, and can lead to conflict. We propose Dragon Kill Points, adapted from multiplayer gaming, to track contributions throughout a project's lifecycle. Dragon Kill Points is based on five principles: granularity, responsibility, equity, autonomy, and transparency (GREAT). These ensure detailed task records, clear criteria, equitable rules, contributor flexibility, and shared documentation. By applying Dragon Kill Points, teams can reduce disputes, promote inclusivity, and recognise all contributions, including middle authorship. This scalable system offers a practical solution for managing authorship in collaborative research.
Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) games rely on sustained player participation to maintain competitive matchmaking and community vitality, yet player churn remains a persistent challenge. Although gamification mechanics are widely embedded in MOBA design, how specific mechanics translate into long-term retention through internal psychological processes is not fully understood. Drawing on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) paradigm and integrating Self-Determination Theory and Flow Theory, we proposed a serial mediation model in which goal clarity, immediate feedback, and reward systems enhance continuance intention via perceived competence and flow experience. We collected cross-sectional survey data from 584 active MOBA players and tested the measurement and structural models using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Indirect effects were examined using bias-corrected bootstrapping, and hierarchical regression assessed whether task complexity moderates the perceived competence-flow relationship. The measurement model demonstrated strong reliability and validity. All three gamification mechanics positively predicted perceived competence, with immediate feedback showing the strongest effect. Perceived competence strongly predicted flow, which in turn strongly predicted continuance intention. Bootstrapped mediation tests supported significant serial indirect effects for all three stimuli, indicating partial mediation. Task complexity positively moderated the competence-flow link, such that competence translated into substantially stronger flow under high-complexity matches. MOBA retention is driven not only by gamification mechanics themselves but by their capacity to cultivate competence and facilitate flow, particularly in strategically demanding contexts. Optimizing immediate feedback and maintaining an adaptive challenge-skill balance appear to be key levers for sustaining long-term player engagement.
This commentary examines how strategies used to address workplace bullying and harassment can be adapted to reduce toxic behaviours in multiplayer gaming environments. For many boys and men, online gaming is one of the few accessible spaces for connection and community. When these environments are dominated by aggression and exclusion, they risk reinforcing the very dynamics that contribute to isolation and distress. By drawing on organisational strategies such as structured reporting systems and positive role modelling, we explore how principles of organisational design can be adapted to gaming environments to foster psychological safety and inclusive social norms.
Mobile gaming is widely popular among young adults; however, its effects on stress and cognitive function across different play durations and genders remain unclear. This study examined the acute effects of mobile gaming session duration on heart rate (HR), stress, selective attention, and visual short-term memory (VSM) in male and female university students playing Realm of Valor (ROV), a popular multiplayer online battle arena game. Twenty recreational ROV players (10 males, 10 females; aged 20-22 years) completed a randomized crossover trial involving two remotely supervised gaming sessions: three games (~1 hour) and seven games (~3 hours), separated by a 7-day washout period. Participants played in consistent teams from their home environments. HR, stress (Suanprung Stress Test-20), selective attention (Stroop Color and Word Test), and VSM (CogniFit task) were assessed before and after each session using standardized, investigator-monitored protocols. HR increased significantly following both gaming sessions, with no difference between durations. Stress levels increased only after the seven-game session, with females exhibiting greater increases than males. Selective attention improved after three games but not after seven, with greater gains observed in the shorter session. VSM accuracy and response time did not differ significantly between gaming durations. These findings suggest that short-duration mobile gaming may enhance attentional performance with minimal stress, whereas prolonged play increases stress, particularly in females, and diminishes cognitive benefits.
As competitive gaming continues its global rise, understanding the energy expenditure of esports athletes is essential for evaluating both performance demands and potential health risks. Esports-defined as organised, competitive video gaming-have rapidly expanded and are increasingly recognised as a legitimate form of sport, although debates about their classification remain. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the energy expenditure of esports athletes during gameplay and identify factors influencing metabolic responses. A comprehensive search across multiple databases, including PubMed, Embase, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and Scopus, yielded 176 records. Studies were screened according to predefined PECO-based eligibility criteria and were critically appraised for methodological quality. The review is registered in PROSPERO (CRD42025644801) and follows the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Five studies were included in the review. The included studies assessed energy expenditure in various esports genres, such as multiplayer online battle arena, first-person shooter, and sports simulations, and involved both amateur and professional esports athletes. Measurement methods ranged from indirect calorimetry to wearable heart rate monitors. Despite the predominantly sedentary nature of esports, findings revealed modest increases in energy expenditure and heart rate during gameplay compared to resting conditions. Notably, one study reported that amateur esports athletes expended approximately 40% more energy during competitive sessions, while another found only minimal changes in oxygen consumption among amateur esports athletes. Variation in energy expenditure was linked to player expertise, game genre, and gameplay intensity and duration. Professional esports athletes generally exhibited greater energy expenditure and more pronounced physiological responses than amateurs, suggesting that competitive pressure and cognitive demand contribute to increased metabolic output. However, considerable heterogeneity in study protocols and measurement techniques limited cross-study comparability. Overall, the review indicates that while esports elicit a clear sympathetic nervous system response, as evidenced by elevated heart rate and stress biomarkers, the overall metabolic demands remain relatively low, consistent with light physical activity. These insights have important implications for understanding the health risks associated with prolonged sedentary behaviour in esports athletes. The review underscores the need for standardised methodologies in future research to accurately assess energy expenditure in esports and to further explore the long-term health effects of competitive gaming.