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Fungi in the family Hypocreaceae colonize a wide range of habitats, including the nests of fungus-farming ants (Attini, the "attines"). Although several Hypocreaceae genera are known from attine ant nests, recent studies indicate an even greater, previously unrecognized diversity. In this study, we describe a new genus and five new species associated with Apterostigma ants. A total of 11 isolates from Brazil, Ecuador, and Panama were examined based on macro- and micromorphological characteristics, combined with a family-wide phylogenetic analysis using five molecular loci. This polyphasic approach supports the recognition of Manidigitorum gen. nov. and five new species: M. attinorum, M. cervicornutus, M. minutus, M. sessilis, and M. ramosus. Manidigitorum species are distinguished from related Hypocreaceae by their phialidic conidiogenesis arising from an irregular-shaped basal cell resembling a hand supporting fingers. These findings broaden the known diversity of Hypocreaceae and provide new insights into the symbiotic relationships between fungi of this family and attine ants.

Our planet is inhabited by an estimated 2.5 million species of fungi, of which fewer than 10% have been scientifically described. Some of the most understudied yet remarkable fungal species are those capable of parasitizing arthropods, notably insects and spiders. Here, we explore the hidden diversity of a spider-attacking (araneopathogenic) fungus and its associated microbiome in one of the world's most biodiverse yet threatened biomes, the Atlantic Forest. We apply a field-based "taxogenomic" approach, comprising the integration of classical fungal taxonomy and genomic characterization of a sample's endogenous, associated, and incidental DNA. The data we produced in the field reveal a new species of Purpureocillium fungus belonging to the P. atypicola group, parasitizing trapdoor spiders, and provide a snapshot of its associated bacterial and fungal microbiota. Molecular, morphological, and ecological data support P. atypicola as a complex of cryptic species infecting a variety of ecologically distinct spider species globally. We call for consolidated efforts to accelerate and facilitate the publication of both new species and the characterization of the genomic composition of their associated taxa.

Steccherinum and its allied genera represent a morphologically complex group of fungi within the Steccherinaceae. In this study, we investigated, through morphological and multigene phylogenetic analyses, the diversity of odontioid/hydnoid Steccherinum s.l. collected in Brazil. Culture studies were conducted to compare mycelial morphology and growth rates among species, and mating tests were performed to assess sexual compatibility among related taxa. In addition, divergence-time estimates for the Steccherinaceae were generated using a concatenated five-gene dataset to contextualize the evolutionary history of the group. Molecular data revealed eight well-defined neotropical lineages in Steccherinum, including S. larssonii, S. perparvulum, S. subochraceum, and five new species: S. bononiae, S. elegantissimum, S. molle, S. resinaceum, and S. undulatum. The five newly described taxa are morphologically very similar and differ only in subtle diagnostic traits. Two additional new species were identified in Cabalodontia: C. albofulva and C. brunnea. Furthermore, the new combinations C. lincangense and C. tenuissima are proposed based on the phylogenetic data. Phylogenetic analyses also demonstrated that S. perparvulum comprises a species complex with three distinct lineages. Mating tests between two of these lineages showed a lack of sexual compatibility, indicating that they represent separate biological species that cannot be distinguished morphologically. Mycelial culture studies also revealed generally similar morphology with variable growth rates among taxa. Divergence-time estimates indicate a crown age of approximately 86.4 Ma for the Steccherinaceae and a predominantly Cenozoic diversification, with Steccherinum originating in the Eocene. Our findings highlight significant cryptic diversity within Steccherinum in the Neotropics and provide new insights into the taxonomy and phylogeny of the genus.

Historically, Sirococcus (established in 1855) and Gnomoniopsis (proposed in 1893) have been treated as distinct genera within Gnomoniaceae, primarily distinguished by the prevalence of their asexual and sexual morphs, respectively. However, recent molecular data have challenged this distinction. In this study, we re-evaluated the relationship between these two genera using a combined multi-locus phylogeny (ITS, tef1, and tub2) and morphological assessment. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that species of Sirococcus and Gnomoniopsis cluster within a single, robustly supported monophyletic lineage, sharing indistinguishable asexual characteristics. Consequently, we propose to synonymize Gnomoniopsis under Sirococcus following the principle of priority. Thirty-eight new combinations and a new species are proposed. Furthermore, we investigated the life cycle of Sirococcus daii comb. nov., a severe pathogen causing nut rot of Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima), for which the teleomorph was previously unknown. Through extensive sampling, we discovered the teleomorph on overwintered leaf litter, confirming the saprobic phase of its life cycle. Additionally, the fungus was isolated from healthy female flowers, young nuts, and husks, suggesting a latent or endophytic infection strategy. Based on these findings, we reconstructed the complete life cycle of S. daii. This study not only resolves the taxonomic controversy surrounding Sirococcus and Gnomoniopsis but also provides crucial epidemiological insights into S. daii, facilitating the development of effective management strategies for chestnut nut rot.

Sclerotinia is a fungal genus of significant agricultural and scientific importance, as it includes multiple plant pathogens and provides an informative case study for mechanisms of host generalism. However, the taxonomy of this group remains unsettled, which hinders research on these pathogens. The last monographic treatment of Sclerotinia was published more than 40 years ago and was centered on the morphological data available at that time. Here, we examine that revision alongside other pivotal publications to trace the taxonomic history of Sclerotinia and to evaluate the morphological traits used to identify Sclerotinia species. We also briefly assess the composition of genera in the family Sclerotiniaceae, emphasising the need for a modern taxonomic investigation of the broader group. Thirteen new Sclerotinia species have been described since the last taxonomic revision, including Sclerotinia antarctica, S. asari, S. atrostipitata, S. cirsii-spinosissimi, S. ginseng, S. glacialis, S. himalayensis, S. nivalis, S. pseudoplatani, S. subarctica, S. tetraspora, S. trillii, and S. verrucispora. These species are evaluated here. Finally, several recommendations are made regarding how future taxonomic research on Sclerotinia should incorporate molecular data. We highlight potential obstacles and opportunities for this research, including the limitations of the internal transcribed spacer rDNA region (ITS) as a DNA barcode and the untapped potential of genomic data for the genus. By outlining the gaps that need to be addressed, this review charts a course toward a clearer understanding of taxonomic relationships among Sclerotinia species. This understanding will facilitate research into other aspects, such as pathogenicity and host generalism, and may ultimately contribute to improved management of the devastating diseases caused by these pathogens.

Numerous severe cases of neurotoxic mushroom poisoning worldwide are caused by ibotenic acid and muscimol produced by specific species belonging to section Amanita of the genus Amanita. Recent studies have demonstrated that both toxins are produced through the ibotenic acid biosynthetic gene cluster (iboBGC) in these species. In addition to these two toxins, section Amanita is also thought to include several species producing another neurotoxic compound, muscarine. However, the taxonomic distribution and evolutionary history of these toxins within the section remain poorly understood. In this study, phylogenetic analyses based on nucleotide sequences of two loci (ITS and LSU) and five loci (ITS, LSU, RPB2, TEF1, and TUB2), together with a phylogenomic analysis using 467 single-copy genes, were conducted to reconstruct the phylogenetic framework of section Amanita. BEAST analysis was used to estimate divergence times within the section. Gene identification of the iboBGC was conducted using 25 Amanita genomes, followed by phylogenetic analyses of each ibo gene. Biochemical analysis of muscarine was performed on 31 representative species. Based on these analyses, ibo genes were detected in 21 species forming a major monophyletic clade within the section Amanita, whereas muscarine was detected in eight species that constituted a small subclade nested within this clade. Finally, our phylogenetic, phylogenomic, chemotaxonomic, and molecular dating results indicate a monophyletic distribution of the iboBGC and muscarine within the section Amanita, with independent origins approximately 28 million years ago (Mya) and 15 Mya, respectively, and no evidence of subsequent losses.

This study presents the first annotated genome of the Antarctic fungus Pseudogymnoascus australis UA-032-E, revealing significant biosynthetic potential with 44 predicted biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) identified through antiSMASH analysis. These BGCs include nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS), type I polyketide synthases (PKS), and hybrid systems, indicating a diverse capacity for secondary metabolite production. BiG-SCAPE analysis grouped these clusters into 41 gene cluster families, with most being singletons, demonstrating low genetic redundancy and high structural diversity. To activate silent pathways, we employed elicitors (NPS and LPS) across multiple culture media, successfully inducing previously undetected metabolic activity. Using an integrated LC-QTOF-MS/MS approach combined with the GNPS and SIRIUS platforms, a total of 75 features were detected, including cyclodipeptides [cyclo-(Pro-Val), cyclo-(Leu-Leu)], maculosin, and betaine lipids such as DGTS 18:2-compounds linked to stress adaptation and biological activities in the literature. The YES medium supplemented with LPS elicitation yielded the highest metabolic diversity, suggesting this combination effectively stimulates specialized metabolism. Our findings demonstrate the value of combining genomic and metabolomic approaches to unlock the chemical potential of psychrophilic fungi. The genomic resource presented here provides a foundation for future functional studies and targeted bioprospecting of this Antarctic fungus for novel metabolites with potential biotechnological applications.

Ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) form obligate nutritional symbioses with ambrosia fungi cultivated within their galleries. Among them, the pinhole borers (Platypodinae) are predominantly tropical, with only two representatives native to Europe. One of them, the rare and understudied Treptoplatypus oxyurus, primarily colonises Abies alba. We investigated its fungal symbionts using a cultivation-dependent approach. We identified three numerically dominant associates in the prothorax containing mycangia: Candida schatavii, Magnusiomyces fungicola, and a novel member of Ophiostomatales. The latter, Wilhelmdebeerea oxyuri gen. et sp. nov., was the most abundant and exhibited both leptographium-like and hyalorhinocladiella-like morphs. Additionally, two new yeast species of low abundance and uncertain ecological roles were isolated and described: Blastobotrys sasensis sp. nov. and Sugiyamaella casensis sp. nov., both belonging to the family Trichomonascaceae (Dipodascales). Multigene and phylogenomics analyses confirmed the distinct taxonomic placement of all three new species. The ecological roles of the identified fungi and the strength of their association with T. oxyurus require confirmation through further studies at additional locations. Our findings reveal a previously undocumented fungal diversity tightly linked to a unique pinhole borer, T. oxyurus, thereby enriching our understanding of the fungi associated with conifer-colonising beetles and their ecological and biotechnological importance.

The new genus Garciamycella is here erected to accommodate the soil-borne fungus G. chlamydospora, as well as G. cyclaminis and G. fici, based on a phylogenetic study using sequences of ITS, LSU, rpb2, and tub2. The establishment of Garciamycella has important taxonomic implications, as it helps to resolve a phylogenetically distinct lineage in the order Sordariales, a group in which the placement of numerous taxa remains uncertain. The new species G. chlamydospora was investigated for its secondary metabolite production, affording one previously undescribed papulacandin derivative (1), together with two known compounds from the same family, Mer-WF3010 (2) and papulacandin D (3). In addition, two previously undescribed metabolites, penazaphilone M (4) and cremenoic acid (5), were isolated alongside the known derivatives cremenolide (6) and aspinolide B (7). All compounds were isolated using preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and their chemical structures were elucidated through comprehensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic analyses, in addition to high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS). Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities were assessed for all metabolites, and compounds (1-3) revealed potent antifungal activity. This research highlights how exploring novel fungal taxa can lead to the discovery of structurally unique metabolites with significant antifungal properties. It further confirms the potential of the order Sordariales as prolific producers of bioactive compounds with potential applications in the development of new antifungal agents.

Spider-pathogenic fungi serve as critical regulators of spider populations in natural systems, playing irreplaceable roles in maintaining ecological balance and also serving as reservoirs of bioactive compounds. Despite recent taxonomic refinements at the generic level, their broader phylogenetic diversity remains significantly underrepresented compared to entomopathogenic fungi. In this study, we collected several novel spider-pathogenic fungi from various provinces in China and conducted comprehensive taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses. Based on integrated morphological characterization and multigene phylogenetic analyses of five loci (ITS, nrLSU, TEF1, RPB1, and RPB2), eight novel species are described and illustrated: Arachnidicola (1), Gamszarella (1), Gibellula (2), Hevansia (1), and Liangia (1) within Cordycipitaceae; Husseyia (1) within Clavicipitaceae; and Purpureocillium (1) within Ophiocordycipitaceae. Additionally, six new combinations are proposed, one Chinese new record is reported, the type specimen of one known species is revised, and five potential cryptic species are identified. Our phylogenetic analyses provide robust evidence for the taxonomic placement of Chlorocillium and Husseyia within Clavicipitaceae. Molecular clock analysis, utilizing a dataset of five loci from 648 fungal strains, estimated the stem and crown ages of Hypocreales and indicated that spider-pathogenic fungi likely emerged during the mid-Cretaceous and subsequently diversified. Multiple lineages displayed marked trends toward host specialization, suggesting that these fungi developed highly efficient parasitic strategies to exploit constrained ecological niches. This research substantially expands the documented diversity of araneopathogenic fungi, providing a robust phylogenetic framework for elucidating their evolutionary origins and diversification patterns, while offering valuable biological resources for future biotechnological and ecological applications.

Global increases in connectivity have greatly accelerated the frequency of biological invasions across most of Earth's ecosystems, including forests. Once invasive organisms become established in a naïve environment, they are difficult to eradicate or contain; thus, management strategies often focus on mitigating their impacts. As the use of chemical pesticides in forests is increasingly prohibited, biological control of pests and diseases has gained importance as an environmentally friendly alternative. Virus-mediated hypovirulence in the chestnut blight fungus Cryphonectria parasitica is one of the few successful examples of biological control of an invasive forest pathogen. However, experiments testing the stability of this system in situ are still missing. In this study, we conducted a field experiment in chestnut stands with naturally established hypovirulence in Switzerland, Croatia, and North Macedonia to evaluate the effectiveness of CHV1-mediated biocontrol of chestnut blight under different vegetative compatibility (vc) type population structures. Our results demonstrate that CHV1 is highly effective as a biological control agent against C. parasitica. Artificially initiated bark cankers of various vc types were rapidly infected by resident CHV1 strains, which significantly reduced canker growth and sporulation, thereby increasing the survival chances of the infected chestnut sprouts. Under field conditions, vegetative incompatibility barriers proved to be far less restrictive for virus transmission than predicted in vitro. Furthermore, our study demonstrates that the immigration of new fungal genotypes into existing cankers is an inherent component of the epidemiology of C. parasitica, which significantly contributes to the spread of CHV1. These results are particularly favourable for ensuring the success of hypovirulence-mediated biocontrol of chestnut blight in Europe. However, our conclusions cannot be automatically translated to genetically distant vc types from outside Europe, whose accidental introduction should be further avoided.

The BioFire FilmArray® system is an automated multiplex PCR tool for detecting pathogens in clinical samples. False positives occasionally occur due to cross-reactivity, contamination, or assay specificity issues. This study investigated false-positive fungal results in FilmArray® blood culture identification panel 2 (BCID2) detection system. We collected the continuous cases in which bloodstream infection (BSI) was suspected in our institute for 12 months, from April in 2024 to March in 2025. We routinely used Bactec FX culture system (Beckton Dickinson) with BD BACTEC culture bottles. Alongside, we identified fungus using standard culture method and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (biomerieux, VITEK MS PRIME). We evaluated continuous 454 blood culture positive sample. Average blood culture sampling were totally 5357 samples per year (44.3/1000 patients days) of blood cultures during our study period. We collected 28 cases of fungemia among totally recruited 454 samples (6.2 %, 28/454). Accordance of blood culture and FilmArray® were 50.0 % (14 samples). We observed eight false positive samples (1.8 %. 8/454) as fungemia out of total 454 samples, in where one false organism was Candida albicans and seven were Candida tropicalis. In the cases of four false Candida tropicalis samples, the FilmArray® reported the two fungal combination, Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis. Our investigation revealed a substantial incident of false positive of Candida. The study highlights recurrent false positives of Candida tropicalis, often detected alongside Candida parapsilosis. The main cause of the detection of false positive organism in BCID2 including Candida spp. has been reported as contamination or technical errors. We speculated that our observation could be derived from the non-viable DNA fragments (Candida albicans) contained in the blood culture media and cross-reaction of Candida parapsilosis with Candida tropicalis. We should remember these FilmArray® assay limitations linked to non-viable DNA contamination and high reactivity of sensitive PCR analysis. False positive results for Candida spp. in BCID2 assays require careful interpretation with microbiological expertise. Clinical decisions should be guided by the patient's overall context. Further research is necessary to assess the accuracy of fungal BSI. (341/500 words).

Cordyceps cicadae is a traditional precious medicinal and edible entomogenous fungus. Its asexual fruiting bodies are highly valued in natural health food. Currently, the intrinsic mechanisms regulating fruiting body development in C. cicadae remain largely elusive. The Fus3/MAK2 homolog within the MAPK signaling pathway plays a crucial role in sexual reproduction and pathogenesis in filamentous fungi, yet its function in the fruiting body development of C. cicadae has not been reported. Therefore, this study focused on CcMAK2 from C. cicadae, constructing gene overexpression and knockout strains to analyze its impact on fungal growth and development. The results demonstrated that the knockout strain (ΔCcMAK2) failed to penetrate the insect cuticle from inside, and completely lost the ability to form fruiting bodies. In contrast, the wild-type (WT) and overexpression strain (CcMAK2OE) developed normally, indicating that CcMAK2 is essential for fruiting body formation in C. cicadae. Functional analysis revealed that the ΔCcMAK2 mutant exhibited significantly reduced levels of H2O2 and O2 .-during the fruiting stage, accompanied by increased activities of CAT and GR enzymes, as well as elevated chitinase activity. These findings suggest that the deletion of CcMAK2 is associated with alterations in ROS homeostasis and cell wall-related enzyme. Gene expression analysis further showed that the deletion of CcMAK2 led to altered transcript levels of the downstream transcription factor Ste12 and the cell wall integrity pathway-related gene CcSO. These results suggest that CcMAK2 may be involved in regulating these genes, potentially contributing to its role in fruiting body development. This study provides foundational insights into the role of CcMAK2 in fruiting body development in C. cicadae and lays groundwork for further mechanistic studies in Cordyceps and other fungi. Graphical abstract.

Mortierellaceae are cosmopolitan, soil-inhabiting fungi that can be found in nearly all terrestrial habitat types and are therefore considered an essential part of the core soil microbiome. Many species of this family are known to endure harsh environments, including highly exposed and nutrient-depleted terrains such as glacier forefields. In these environments, microbial communities are taxonomically and functionally diverse, greatly contributing to nutrient cycling, soil organic matter formation, and plant establishment. However, there is growing understanding that Mortierellaceae diversity in these habitats remains largely undescribed. In this study, we isolated multiple fungal strains belonging to a previously unknown Mortierellaceae taxon from early stages of soil development in calcareous glacier forefields of the Alps and comprehensively characterized them using different tools: physiological tests, detection of associated bacteria, and microscopic observations (e.g., light, fluorescence, and scanning electron microscopy) to visualize their morphology and surface structure. Additionally, whole-genome sequencing and phylogenomics were used to determine their placement within Mortierellaceae. Our results show that the isolated strains represent a new species within a previously undescribed fungal genus. Due to the strains' origin in hidden, calcareous sediments of the earliest soil developmental stages at glacier forefields, we propose the name Cryptocalciella humilis Mandolini, Szedlacsek & Peintner for this fungus.

Members of the Botryosphaeriaceae are widespread fungal pathogens responsible for economically important diseases in woody plants. Despite the relevance of conidia production for understanding pathogen biology, infection processes, and disease epidemiology, sporulation in vitro remains unpredictable and inconsistent across species. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of Vogel's Minimal Medium (VMM) for inducing pycnidial and conidial development, which has recently been shown to be effective for this purpose in Diplodia sapinea, in species of Diplodia (n = 3), Lasiodiplodia (n = 2), and Neofusicoccum (n = 26). For this purpose, we used 123 isolates recently collected in the Canary Islands (Spain), as well as 67 Neofusicoccum isolates from long-term storage. All isolates were identified through multilocus phylogenetic analysis. The results showed that D. africana, D. mutila, and D. seriata were able to produce pycnidia, although only D. seriata consistently released conidia. Lasiodiplodia brasiliensis and L. theobromae successfully formed pycnidia and released conidia, while 20 of the 26 tested Neofusicoccum species formed pycnidia, of which 15 released conidia. Significant variation was observed in the time required for pycnidial development and conidial release, as well as in the quantity of conidia produced, both among and within species. Reduced sucrose concentration in VMM delayed pycnidia formation and conidial release and reduced sporulation yields in Neofusicoccum species but increased sporulation in D. africana, D. seriata, L. brasiliensis, and L. theobromae. Long-term storage on Malt Yeast Agar medium at 4 °C negatively affected sporulation in some species, including N. luteum and N. stellenboschiana. Overall, VMM provides a standardised and reproducible medium for inducing sporulation in the Botryosphaeriaceae, although notable variation persists within and between species. These findings provide a methodological foundation for future studies on the biology, pathogenicity, molecular biology, and host-pathogen interactions of these fungi.

Foliar fungal communities are essential components of the plant microbiome, playing a vital role in maintaining plant health and influencing ecosystem dynamics. Despite increasing interest in plant-microbe associations, the drivers shaping foliar fungal community composition remain poorly understood, including the roles of host phylogeny, functional traits, and belowground mycorrhizal symbiosis. We used the MycoPhylo experimental field, in which plant species are planted in a replicated, phylogenetically diverse design, to investigate the influence of host plant identity, mycorrhizal type, and leaf functional traits on foliar fungal assemblages. We examined foliar fungal communities across 158 plots representing 110 distinct plant species using a metabarcoding approach. The resulting operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were dominated by Dothideomycetes (44.5%), Tremellomycetes (12.7%), and Taphrinomycetes (9.0%). Functional guild analysis revealed that plant pathogens and saprotrophs were the most abundant ecological groups. Foliar fungal alpha diversity and community composition were significantly influenced by plant growth form and mycorrhizal association. Although plant deciduousness did not affect fungal richness, it significantly affected fungal community composition. The measured leaf traits (hairiness and thickness) showed the least influence on fungal richness. Mantel tests revealed weak, guild-dependent relationships between host phylogenetic distance and foliar fungal community dissimilarity. Moreover, plant phylogenetic eigenvectors accounted for up to 25.8% of the variation in fungal richness. These findings indicate that host phylogeny and plant traits contribute to-but do not solely determine-the structure of foliar fungal assemblages under field conditions.

Fungi represent the largest group of plant pathogens, causing significant economic losses in agriculture and forestry worldwide. Species of the genus Exobasidium (Exobasidiales, Basidiomycota) are considered pathogens of plants from the order Ericales. While Exobasidium species notably impact tea and fruit production, their complete life cycles remain poorly understood, which hampers their management. These species are characterized by a dikaryotic parasitic stage tightly associated with living host tissues and a haploid, yeast-like saprotrophic stage. The prevalence, ecological significance, and potential contribution of this saprotrophic stage to the persistence of Exobasidium outside living host plants remain understudied. In this study, we confirmed the presence of several Exobasidium species in the leaf phyllosphere of five broad-leaved tree species in Central Europe using both cultivation and environmental DNA ITS2-based approaches. Additionally, we describe a new species without a known parasitic phase, E. phylloplanum sp. nov., along with its physiological description and annotated genome. Environmental DNA surveys, using the GlobalFungi database, revealed that E. phylloplanum is not only common locally but also the most frequently detected Exobasidium lineage worldwide. This broad ecological amplitude contrasts with the narrow host specificity typical of parasitic congeners, suggesting that E. phylloplanum has adapted to a generalist saprotrophic life-history strategy. Our findings demonstrate that Exobasidium species can persist saprotrophically on diverse hosts, suggesting a broader ecological role and higher diversity than previously recognized. This research elucidates the diverse ecological roles of Exobasidium species and suggests that further genomic studies could reveal the genetic factors that underpin the different life strategies within this genus.

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are key epigenetic regulators governing chromatin structure and gene expression, playing critical roles in growth, development, virulence, and multi-stress resistance of plant-pathogenic fungi. Despite their importance, the HDAC gene family (FoHDACs) in Fusarium oxysporum remains poorly characterized. Through genome-wide analysis, we identified 11 FoHDAC genes, phylogenetically classified into three subfamilies: Class I (2 genes), Class II (2 genes), and SIR2 (7 genes). Subcellular localization predicted 6 in the nucleus, 3 in the cytoplasm, and 2 in mitochondria, indicating functional diversity across organelles. Structural analyses revealed conserved domains/motifs specific to each subfamily. Genes showed asymmetric distribution across 6 chromosomes with no recent duplication events. Promoter analysis identified 22 putative cis-elements, including antioxidant (ARE, as-1) and stress response elements (STRE), linking FoHDACs to development and environmental responses. Functional annotation highlighted putative roles in transcriptional regulation, macromolecular catabolism, and heterochromatin assembly beyond core HDAC activity. Molecular docking showed binding affinities < -5 kcal/mol with significant differences across subfamilies. RT-qPCR revealed stage-specific expression: 8 genes peaked in dormant conidia, were suppressed during germination, and recovered during growth/sporulation; 2 showed continuous activation, and 1 was sporulation-specific. Abiotic stresses induced stimulus-dependent regulation, e.g., 33.67-fold repression of FoHST3 under salt stress and > 100-fold induction of FoHOS3 under cold stress. Collectively, our findings reveal that FoHDACs exhibit substantial functional diversity, forming a sophisticated regulatory network mediating fungal development and environmental adaptation.

The family Apiosporaceae is a cosmopolitan family of fungi that occurs as endophytes, pathogens, and saprobes. Due to the morphological similarity of species within this family, both morphological and phylogenetic analyses are required to determine their taxonomic status. In this study, eleven specimens were collected from Yunnan and Guizhou provinces in China. Morphological and phylogenetic analyses based on ITS, LSU, tef1-&#x3b1;, and tub2 sequence data were performed to identify Apiospora (A.) and Nigrospora (N.) isolates. Five new species are described: A. huaxiensis sp. nov., A. nanmingensis sp. nov., A. qingzhenensis sp. nov., A. tongrenensis sp. nov., and Nigrospora neosaccharicola sp. nov. Six new host record species are reported: A. locuta-pollinis, A. setariae, N. chinensis, N. endophytica, N. osmanthi, and N. sphaerica. Furthermore, A. mediterranea syn. nov. is synonymized under A. hispanica, and A. euphorbiae syn. nov., A. magnispora syn. nov., and A. malaysiana syn. nov. are reduced to synonyms of A. vietnamensis based on morphological comparison and phylogenetic analysis. In addition, Apiospora sinensis is reinstated, with Arthrinium sinense (Ar. sinense) syn. nov. treated as its synonym. Statistical analysis of host preferences indicates that Poaceae is the dominant host family. Analysis of their regional distributions showed that Apiospora is more prevalent in Europe, while Nigrospora is more widespread in Asia. This study refines the taxonomy and expands the phylogenetic understanding of Apiosporaceae in China.