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Recently, sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) models with the Transformer architecture have achieved remarkable performance on various conditional text generation tasks, such as machine translation. However, most of them are trained with teacher forcing with the ground truth label given at each time step, without being exposed to incorrectly generated tokens during training, which hurts its generalization to unseen inputs, that is known as the "exposure bias" problem. In this work, we propose to mitigate the conditional text generation problem by contrasting positive pairs with negative pairs, such that the model is exposed to various valid or incorrect perturbations of the inputs, for improved generalization. However, training the model with naive contrastive learning framework using random non-target sequences as negative examples is suboptimal, since they are easily distinguishable from the correct output, especially so with models pretrained with large text corpora. Also, generating positive examples requires domain-specific augmentation heuristics which may not generalize over diverse domains. To tackle this problem, we propose a principled method to generate positive and negative samples for contrastive learning of seq2seq models. Specifically, we generate negative examples by adding small perturbations to the input sequence to minimize its conditional likelihood, and positive examples by adding large perturbations while enforcing it to have a high conditional likelihood. Such "hard" positive and negative pairs generated using our method guides the model to better distinguish correct outputs from incorrect ones. We empirically show that our proposed method significantly improves the generalization of the seq2seq on three text generation tasks - machine translation, text summarization, and question generation.

Background Speech and language development in early childhood is essential for cognitive and social development. With increasing exposure to screens at younger ages, concerns have been raised about potential effects on early language development. Although international recommendations advise limiting screen exposure, awareness and adherence remain variable. Objectives The primary objective is to examine the association between screen exposure patterns and communication scores on the Arabic Ages and Stages Questionnaire, third edition (A-ASQ‑3), among toddlers and preschool‑aged children in the Al Qatif region, Saudi Arabia. The secondary objectives are to explore associations between children's communication scores and maternal education, parental supervision, and familiarity with parental guidance (PG) content ratings during screen use, and children's sleep duration and related sleep habits. Methods A cross‑sectional community‑based study with prospective data collection was conducted between February 2023 and July 2024. Children aged 1-66 months were included because the A-ASQ‑3 provides standardized age‑specific forms across this range, allowing consistent assessment of the communication domain in infants, toddlers, and preschool‑aged children. Data were collected using a parent‑completed questionnaire and analyzed using the IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 29 (Released 2022; IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, United States). The primary outcome was language development status assessed using the A-ASQ‑3 Communication domain (Arabic version). According to A-ASQ‑3 scoring guidelines, children were categorized as above the cut‑off, close to the cut‑off, or below the cut‑off. For interpretation, "language delay" referred to scores below the cut‑off on the communication domain. Results Among 98 children, 35 (36.1%) were introduced to electronic devices between one and two years of age. Daily screen use was most commonly one to two hours/day (33 children, 33.7%), followed by two to three hours/day (23 children, 23.5%). Thirty‑six parents (36.7%) reported implementing screen‑time restrictions. Televisions and smartphones were the most frequently available devices, and 74 children (75.5%) mainly watched children's entertainment shows. Higher language development scores were significantly associated with higher maternal education, caregiver familiarity with PG scores, children sleeping more than 10 hours per night, and parental supervision during screen use, whereas daily screen time duration alone was not significantly associated with scores. The prevalence of delayed language development (scores below the A-ASQ‑3 communication cut‑off) was 6.1%. Conclusion In this cross‑sectional study, language development scores were more favourable among children whose mothers had higher education levels, whose caregivers were familiar with content guidance ratings, who slept longer, and who received closer parental supervision during screen use. These findings support family counselling that emphasizes supervised screen use, age‑appropriate content, and healthy sleep routines, while raising awareness of language development milestones. Larger, longitudinal studies are required to clarify directionality and long‑term outcomes.

Controllers are the primary physical means through which players participate in digital gameplay.For simplicity, I characterize any physical interface that players use to manipulate digital game states as a "controller."For example, aside from common devices that the term is ste reo typically or archetypically applied to, I also include mice and keyboards, dance pads, light guns, or other alternative or specialized physical interfaces as types of controllers in a broad sense.Commercially, controllers are defined as "peripherals."They are a go-to accessory add-on that retail employees are encouraged to upsell to customers purchasing core media or platforms to bring in additional revenue.However, these designations and the conceptual model that they support underscore how integral they are for the activity of digital gaming.For example, figure 5.1 is a screenshot of the top ten results of a Google image search for "playing video games" conducted in an incognito Chrome win dow.In all these images, gameplay is out of focus or even entirely out of frame.Meanwhile, people holding controllers or controllers themselves are the visual focus.These images highlight how all practical, narrative, and personal interactions that players have with gameplay are mediated through controllers.Further, controllers provide another strong reminder that digital gameplay involves the fundamental reconfiguration of familiar gameplay plus software and hardware.When players move their pieces in a classic game of chess, for example, the game state automatically updates in real time.If players want to move a game piece, they simply do so, and they know that it has occurred because it has-in what I hope is a forgivable circular explanation because it is basic real ity. 1 However, even if players may often perceive digital gameplay similarly, it is never actually rendered in real time as our actual world is (so 5 Peripheral Paradox: The Centrality of Controllers

BACKGROUND: Previous research has presented varying perspectives on the potential effect of screen media use among preschoolers. In this study, we systematically reviewed experimental studies that investigated how pacing and fantasy features of TV programs affect children's attention and executive functions (EFs). METHODS: A systematic search was conducted across eight online databases to identify pertinent studies published until August 2023. We followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines. RESULTS: Fifteen papers involving 1855 participants aged 2-7 years fulfilled all the inclusion criteria for this review and were entered into the narrative synthesis. Despite the challenge of reaching general conclusions and encountering conflicting outcomes, a nuanced analysis reveals distinct patterns within various subgroups. The impact of pacing on attention is discernible, particularly in bottom-up attention processes, although the nature of this effect remains contradictory. Conversely, consistent findings emerge regarding top-down attention, suggesting any impact. Moreover, a subgroup analysis of different EF components yields valuable insights, highlighting the negative effect of fantasy on inhibitory control within the EF framework. CONCLUSION: The complexity of these outcomes highlights the need for further research, considering factors such as content, child-specific characteristics, environmental factors, and methodological approaches. These findings collectively emphasize the necessity of conducting more comprehensive and detailed research, especially in terms of the underlying mechanisms and their impact on brain function.

Abstract Using total revenue, previous research finds college basketball players generate millions of dollars in marginal revenue product (MRP). We are skeptical of using total revenue data. Instead, we use total variable revenue since using fixed revenues can over‐estimate a team's marginal revenue and therefore a player's MRP. Comparing MRP to the players average grant‐in‐aid, we find that for public Division I universities, a little over one‐quarter of men's basketball players are exploited and a little over one‐tenth of women's basketball players are exploited.

This case explores the impact of stakeholder opinion expressed through social media on organisational decision-making.Students will examine the nationally publicised coaching search conducted by the University of Tennessee's football program in the fall of 2017 through the lens of social influence theory.Chancellor Beverly Davenport of the University of Tennessee faced a dilemma when she offered the job of Head Football Coach to Ohio State's defensive coordinator.Fans immediately voiced their outrage concerning the candidate's character and ignited a social media firestorm, which quickly received national media attention.Chancellor Davenport had to decide just how much weight university administrators should allow public opinion to carry in the hiring decision.

Unofficial API wrapper for 'Euroleague' and 'Eurocup' basketball API (&lt;<a href="https://www.euroleaguebasketball.net/en/euroleague/" target="_top">https://www.euroleaguebasketball.net/en/euroleague/</a>&gt;), it allows to retrieve real-time and historical standard and advanced statistics about competitions, teams, players and games.

This monograph is intended for teachers, graduate students, and students studying the specialties "Economics" and "Entrepreneurship and Trade", for specialists in these fields and for a wide range of readers who are interested in the problems of the formation and development of eSports as a new area of ​​the digital economy, its impact on society, as well as the prospects of using eSports as a tool for the development of the economy of Ukraine.

Abstract Sales faces the second-largest gender gap of any corporate function, with women’s underrepresentation even more pronounced in business-to-business (B2B) sales and at higher hierarchical levels. Concurrently, the call for a more gender-diverse sales force is gaining momentum for social and economic reasons, moving the question of how to attract and promote women in B2B sales to the top of sales managers’ agenda. Using an inductive approach, we uncover male-centricity of communication and job structures in B2B sales as the underlying reasons deterring women from entering and advancing in B2B sales. Specifically, male-centricity implies a misfit between B2B sales and women’s self-conception and needs. By deriving contingencies of these relationships, we offer solutions to women’s underrepresentation in B2B sales by showing, for example, which sales positions are less prone to signal or create a misfit to women and what gender-inclusive resources sales departments can provide and saleswomen can build.

The COVID-19 global pandemic, announced in March 2020, had detrimental effects on the restaurant industry. Restaurants either voluntarily closed or were mandated by state or local governments to discontinue dining in restaurants to mitigate the spread of the virus. Once dine-in restrictions were lifted, many restaurants adopted safety practices to limit customer and employee exposure to COVID-19. This study aimed to assess consumer opinion on how restaurants handled the COVID-19 pandemic safety practices and what expectations consumers had of restaurants concerning safety practices moving forward. Participants of this study lived in the United States, were 18 years or older, and had purchased food from a restaurant at least five times during the COVID-19 pandemic (n= 374). The questionnaire was distributed nationally using Amazon Mechanical Turk in May 2021. Results of this study indicated that: 1) on average, consumers agreed or were neutral on the matter that restaurants had implemented safety protocols such as social distancing, sanitizing, and requiring employees and guests to wear masks during the pandemic, and 2) consumers agreed that moving forward, restaurants should offer online ordering options, require frequent hand washing for employees, encourage sick employees to stay home, encourage sick guests not to enter the restaurant, offer curbside delivery and contactless pick-up, regularly disinfect employee work areas and frequently touched surfaces, and offer outdoor seating. Findings suggest that customers continued to expect safety and food purchasing and delivery practices implemented during the pandemic. Differences in consumer attitudes and expectations among demographic groups, implications, and future research are also discussed.

Mathematics is a branch of knowledge related to developing abstract concepts, structures, and relationships in the form of numbers, symbols, and patterns. The issue some students still have trouble recalling formulas, doing division in one of the flat shape materials, and doing multiplication using the formula for the perimeter and area of flat shapes. This research discusses the design of educational games to help fourth-grade students learn flat-shape mathematics. Interviews were conducted with class IV teachers at SDN Sirnajaya Five in conveying material to students; they did not use learning media or visual aids. The problem that often arises is that some students still need help learning flat-shape mathematics. This research aims to build a flat-shape math educational game application for fourth-grade students so that these students can quickly understand the basics of flat-shape material, the definition of flat shapes, formulas, and the properties of flat shapes. The method used is the Multimedia Development Life Cycle (MDLC), a pattern for developing software systems consisting of Concept, Design, Material Collecting, Assembly, Testing, and Distribution stages, which form a workflow for planning and controlling the design of Educational Game applications. This research results in an Android-based flat-shape mathematics educational game application.

У статті представлено специфіку системної формалізації процесів розвитку кіберспорту в Україні. За отриманими результатами виявлено значну кількість кіберспортсменів Dota2, CS:GO, що працюють поза клубною системою. Доведено потребу забезпечення розвиту клубної системи кіберспорту за дисциплінами Valve Corporation в Україні за рахунок заходів із техніко-економічного розвитку кіберспортивних клубів, максимізації їхніх доходів. Формалізація процесів розвитку кіберспорту за підсистемою Valve Corporation виявила формування ресурсів із розширення виробництва лише по кіберспортивних продуктах Dota2, CS:GO. За іншими іграми розробника/видавця формування ресурсів із розширення виробництва та значний розвиток малоймовірні. Для активізації процесів формування ресурсів із розширення виробництва за підсистемою Valve Corporation необхідне розширення функції прибутку. Формалізація процесів розвитку підсистеми кіберспортивних подій виявила, що незалежні турнірні оператори України орієнтовані на розширення виробництва кіберспортивного продукту Home Gameґ.

National sentiment can have major implications for individual consumption and investment choices but has been researched little by economists. This article studies how national sentiment in the form of a perception or loyalty bias of bettors may affect pricing patterns on national wagering markets for European football. The authors show theoretically that both biases can be profitably exploited by domestic bookmakers through price adjustment. Analyzing empirically a unique data set of betting odds from online bookmakers in Europe, the authors find evidence of systematic biases in the pricing of own national teams, deviations that can be explained by the aforementioned two biases.

his paper discusses at an undergraduate level how forecast rationality can be tested. It explains that forecasters should correctly use any relevant information they knew in making their predictions. It shows that forecast rationality can be tested by determining whether the forecasters' prediction errors are predictable. After addressing what data and methods can be used for testing rationality, the paper presents tests of the price-forecast rationality of individual professional forecasters. Unlike results of previous studies, the test results show that those forecasters' price predictions appear to be rational.

Family violence is a pervasive and costly problem, yet there is no consensus on how to interpret the phenomenon of violence by one family member against another. Some analysts assume that violence has an instrumental role in intra-family incentives. Others argue that violent episodes represent a loss of control that the offender immediately regrets. In this paper we specify and test a behavioral model of the latter form. Our key hypothesis is that negative emotional cues -benchmarked relative to a rationally expected reference point -make a breakdown of control more likely. We test this hypothesis using data on police reports of family violence on Sundays during the professional football season. Controlling for location and time fixed effects, weather factors, the pre-game point spread, and the size of the local viewing audience, we find that upset losses by the home team (losses in games that the home team was predicted to win by more than 3 points) lead to an 8 percent increase in police reports of at-home male-on-female intimate partner violence. There is no corresponding effect on female-on-male violence. Consistent with the behavioral prediction that losses matter more than gains, upset victories by the home team have (at most) a small dampening effect on family violence. We also find that unexpected losses in highly salient or frustrating games have a 50% to 100% larger impact on rates of family violence. The evidence that payoff-irrelevant events affect the rate of family violence leads us to conclude that at least some fraction of family violence is better characterized as a breakdown of control than as rationally directed instrumental violence.

AbstractNational games are considered to be an element of a people&amp;#039;s history, tradition and life. It is through them that the culture of the people is revealed. There have been many films and documentaries about the national game of Kok Boru. But a documentary about Kok Boru from the world famous streaming company Netflix caught our attention. American streaming service Netflix released the first season of the documentary web series “Home Game” on June 26 in 2020. The series focuses on “a global perspective on traditional and unusual national sports, as well as the communities and cultures in which they exist”. The documentary film tells about eight national games from around the world. One of them is Kok Boru. In the article we discuss the history of Kok Boru and with the help of descriptive method of analysis we try to explore how Netflix reflected the national game Kok Boru and the Kyrgyz people to the world. We analyze in detail the sequential plot of the film and identify the role of traditional sport in the representation of Kyrgyzstan.

When high school students leave their homes for a college education, the students often face enormous changes and challenges in life, such as meeting new people, more responsibilities in life, and being away from family and their comfort zones. These sudden changes often lead to an elevation of stress and anxiety, affecting a student's mental health and well-being and academic progress. With the outbreak of a pandemic, such as COVID-19, this transition moment can worsen with frequent, long-lasting lockdown and associated academic disruption. To help this young population, researchers are increasingly relying on smartphones and wearables, such as smartwatches, to continuously monitor students' daily lives to identify various factors that can affect students' phone call patterns associated with their health and well-being and academic success. In this work, we use different visualizations and statistical techniques to find various geographical places and temporal factors that affect students' phone call patterns (in terms of phone call duration and frequency) to foster the design and delivery of future smartphone-based health interventions using predictive models; thereby, potentially helping students adjust to college life with or without the presence of an emergency, such as pandemic that adversely impacts academic calendar and student life. From our detailed analysis of an 18-month dataset collected from a cohort of 464 freshmen, we obtain insights on communication pattern variations during different temporal contexts, e.g., epochs of a day, days of a week, the parts of a semester, social events, and in various geographical contexts (i.e., places of interest). Finally, we also obtain a negative correlation of -0.29 between physical activity and phone call duration, which can help provide guided feedback to improve future health behaviors.

Fixing the Price Fixing Confusion: A Rule of Reason ApproachDespite its apparent clarity, the "per se" rule against price fixing' has given rise to a great deal of confusion and inconsistency in antitrust law.At times, practices have been brought within the rule's scope merely because they touch upon price in some way, while at other times the economic consequences of the situation have been considered.The erratic application of the rule stems from a basic discrepancy between the legal and economic treatments of "price fixing."Analysis reveals that the courts have developed neither a clear economic definition of price fixing nor coherent criteria for applying the per se rule.Furthermore, the per se rule has been used to strike down economically efficient behavior. 2 The courts have proscribed cooperative activities on the grounds that there was some agreement as to price, even though there were potential efficiency gains similar to those available from arrangements generally evaluated under a "rule of reason" standard, such as joint ventures and partnerships.A rule of reason approach to price fixing can preserve most of the advantages of a per se rule while promoting more of the gains from efficient activities and bringing greater consistency to the law.This Note argues that the courts should therefore adopt a rule of reason approach to price fixing. I. Rationales for a Per Se Approach to Price FixingSection 1 of the Sherman Act proscribes "[e]very contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations."' This language was originally interpreted literally to forbid every combination in 1. "Under the Sherman Act a combination formed for the purpose and with the effect of raising, depressing, fixing, pegging, or stabilizing the price of a commodity in interstate or foreign commerce is illegal per se."United States v. Socony-Vacuum Oil Co., 310 U.S. 150, 223 (1940) (Madison Oil).As will be shown, neither a purpose to fix prices nor actual success in doing so is necessary for liability under the Madison Oil rule; rather, "[a]ny combination which tampers with price structures is engaged in an unlawful activity."Id. at 221; see infra note 42.2. Economically efficient behavior is behavior that increases the aggregate wealth of society.This may occur either by lowering production costs (productive efficiency) or by assigning goods or services to more highly valued uses (allocative efficiency).The two forms of efficiency are closely related, since a firm that produces more efficiently will drive less efficient competitors from the market, thereby freeing the latter's resources for more highly valued uses.See F. KNIGHT, THE ECONOMIC ORGANIZA-TION 9 (1933).The terms "productive efficiency" and "allocative efficiency" are explained more fully in R.

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