搜索结果：Helping

Contends, on the basis of posited social-role theory of gender and helping, that the male gender role fosters helping that is heroic and chivalrous, whereas the female gender role fosters helping that is nurturant and caring. In social psychological studies, helping behavior has mainly been examined in the context of short-term encounters with strangers. This focus has tended to exclude from the research literature those helping behaviors prescribed by the female gender role, because they are displayed primarily in long-term, close relationships. In contrast, the helping behaviors prescribed by the male gender role have been generously represented in research findings because they are displayed in relationships with strangers as well as in close relationships. Results from a meta-analytic review of sex differences in 172 studies (appended) in helping behavior indicate that in general men helped more than women and women received more help than men. Nevertheless, sex differences in helping were inconsistent across studies and were successfully predicted by various attributes of the studies and the helping behaviors. (96 ref) (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

This research program explored links among prosocial motives, empathy, and helping behavior. Preliminary work found significant relations among components of self-reported empathy and personality (N = 223). In Study 1, the authors examined the generality of prosocial behavior across situations and group memberships of victims (N = 622). In Study 2, empathic focus and the victim's outgroup status were experimentally manipulated (N = 87). Study 3 (N = 245) replicated and extended Study 2 by collecting measures of prosocial emotions before helping. In Study 4 (N = 244), empathic focus and cost of helping as predictors of helping behavior were experimentally manipulated. Overall, prosocial motivation is linked to (a) Agreeableness as a dimension of personality, (b) proximal prosocial cognition and motives, and (c) helping behavior across a range of situations and victims. In persons low in prosocial motivation, when costs of helping are high, efforts to induce empathy situationally can undermine prosocial behavior.

In this article, the authors introduce and test a group-level perspective on the role of empathy and interpersonal attraction in helping. In line with our predictions, Study 1, a longitudinal field study of 166 AIDS volunteers, confirmed that empathy was a stronger predictor of helping when the recipient of assistance was an in-group member than when that person was an out-group member. Also as hypothesized, attraction was a stronger predictor of helping when the recipient was an out-group member than when that person was an in-group member. Study 2 replicated and further extended these results in a laboratory experiment on spontaneous helping of a person with hepatitis. Strengthening the validity of the findings, in both studies the effects of empathy and attraction held up even when the authors statistically controlled for potential alternative predictors of helping. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings for helping in intergroup contexts are discussed.

Recent advances in incentive theory stress the multidimensional nature of agent effort and specifically cases where workers affect one anothers' performance through “helping” efforts. This article models helping efforts as determined by the compensation package and task allocation. The model is tested with Australian evidence on reported helping efforts within work groups. The evidence consistently supports the hypothesis that helping efforts are reduced, while individual efforts are increased, when promotion incentives are strong. Piece rates and profit‐sharing appear to have little effect on helping efforts, while task variety and helping efforts are positively correlated.

Self-determination theory posits that the degree to which a prosocial act is volitional or autonomous predicts its effect on well-being and that psychological need satisfaction mediates this relation. Four studies tested the impact of autonomous and controlled motivation for helping others on well-being and explored effects on other outcomes of helping for both helpers and recipients. Study 1 used a diary method to assess daily relations between prosocial behaviors and helper well-being and tested mediating effects of basic psychological need satisfaction. Study 2 examined the effect of choice on motivation and consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping using an experimental design. Study 3 examined the consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping for both helpers and recipients in a dyadic task. Finally, Study 4 manipulated motivation to predict helper and recipient outcomes. Findings support the idea that autonomous motivation for helping yields benefits for both helper and recipient through greater need satisfaction. Limitations and implications are discussed.

Part I: LAYING THE GROUNDWORK. 1. Introduction to Helping. 2. The Helping Relationship: Values in Action. 3. Overview of the Helping Model. Part II: STAGE I OF THE HELPING PROCESS AND THE SKILLS OF THERAPEUTIC DIALOGUE. 4. Stage I: The Current Picture: Task 1-Partner with Clients to Help Them Tell Their Stories. 5. The Communication Skills of Therapeutic Dialogue: The Skills of Tuning in & Actively Listening to Clients. 6. Empathic Responding: Working at Mutual Understanding. 7. The Art of Probing and Summarizing. 8. Stage I: Task 2-Facilitate Client Self-Challenge: From New Perspectives to New Behavior. 9. Stage I: Task 3-Partner with Clients in Their Search for Value. Part III: THE UNDERAPPRECIATED DIMENSIONS OF HELPING: HELP CLIENTS CRAFT AND CREATE A BETTER FUTURE. 10. Introduction to Stages II and III: Decisions, Goals, Outcomes, and Impact. 11. Stage II: The Preferred Picture-Help Clients Design a Better Future and Commit Themselves to It. 12. Stage III: The Way Forward-Help Clients Develop Plans to Accomplish Goals. 13. The Action Arrow: Making It All Happen.

Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change . William R. Miller and Stephen Rollnick (3rd edn), New York: Guilford Press, 2013. £39.99. 482 pp. ISBN: 978-1-60918-227-4. Description of and instruction in the art of motivational interviewing (MI) has made a significant contribution to the optimism of practitioners treating addiction disorders. This is the field in which MI arose 30 years ago. Its use has generalized into other health behaviour change interventions, and beyond into general decision making. For the addiction field, the essence of the contribution has been to give practitioners a set of skills to deal with that most challenging characteristic of people with addiction disorders, namely resistance to change. This third edition of Motivational Interviewing elaborates on the method described in the two previous editions (Miller and Rollnick, 1991, 2002), but without the assistance of contributing authors and with the change of the sub-title to ‘Helping People Change’. The previous sub-titles were: Volume 1 ‘Helping People Change Addictive Behaviour’ and Volume 2: ‘Preparing People for Change’. These subtle differences are important; the practice of MI appears to stop where the behaviour change plan begins. Hence, arguably the second volume's sub-title is the most apt. All are based on the once novel approach in …

▪ Abstract It has recently been argued that the paradox of helping behavior in birds has been solved ( 73 ). This optimism may be premature. I argue that there is no obvious dichotomy between cooperative societies based on natal philopatry and the formation of extended families, and those formed via recruitment of unrelated individuals into coalitions. Tests of the effect of helping behavior suggest that kinship may have been overemphasized for male helpers but underestimated for females. The first studies applying molecular techniques to resolve genealogy in these societies suggest that reproductive sharing occurs commonly across all types of social organization. Incest avoidance may be an important constraint on sharing in families, but molecular techniques have thus far been inappropriate to assess its importance. The interests of males and female helpers may be quite different because females often have less opportunity to inherit a territory vacancy on the death of the breeder, less opportunity to court mates by helping them, and less opportunity to share reproduction without perturbing the size of the brood. We still have only a weak understanding of sex biases in helping behavior.

The study explored how the meaning of prosocial behavior changes over toddlerhood. Sixty-five 18- and 30-month-olds could help an adult in 3 contexts: instrumental (action based), empathic (emotion based), and altruistic (costly). Children at both ages helped readily in instrumental tasks. For 18-month-olds, empathic helping was significantly more difficult than instrumental helping and required greater communication from the adult about her needs. Altruistic helping, which involved giving up an object of the child's own, was the most difficult for children at both ages. Findings suggest that over the 2nd year of life, prosocial behavior develops from relying on action understanding and explicit communications to understanding others' emotions from subtle cues. Developmental trajectories of social-cognitive and motivational components of early helping are discussed.

A substantial body of evidence collected by Batson and his associates has advanced the idea that pure (i.e., selfless) altruism occurs under conditions of empathy for a needy other. An egoistic alternative account of this evidence was proposed and tested in our work. We hypothesized that an observer's heightened empathy for a sufferer brings with it increased personal sadness in the observer and that it is the egoistic desire to relieve the sadness, rather than the selfless desire to relieve the sufferer, that motivates helping. Two experiments contrasted predictions from the selfless and egoistic alternatives in the paradigm typically used by Batson and his associates. In the first, an emphatic orientation to a victim increased personal sadness, as expected. Furthermore, when sadness and empathic emotion were separated experimentally, helping was predicted by the levels of sadness subjects were experiencing but not by their empathy scores. In the second experiment, enhanced sadness was again associated with empathy for a victim. However, subjects who were led to perceive that their moods could not be altered through helping (because of the temporary action of a "mood-fixing" placebo drug) were not helpful, despite high levels of empathic emotion. The results were interpreted as providing support for an egoistically based interpretation of helping under conditions of high empathy.

The influence of several situational and personality variables on helping behavior was examined in an emergency situation suggested by the parable of the Good Samaritan. People going between two buildings encountered a shabbily dressed person slumped by the side of the road. Subjects in a hurry to reach their destination were more likely to pass by without stopping. Some subjects were going to give a short talk on the parable of the Good Samaritan, others on a nonhelping relevant topic; this made no significant difference in the likelihood of their giving the victim help. Religious personality variables did not predict whether an individual would help the victim or not. However, if a subject did stop to offer help, the character of the helping response was related to his type of religiosity.

Two experiments exploring the effects of social category membership on real-life helping behavior are reported. In Study 1, intergroup rivalries between soccer fans are used to examine the role of identity in emergency helping. An injured stranger wearing an in-group team shirt is more likely to be helped than when wearing a rival team shirt or an unbranded sports shirt. In Study 2, a more inclusive social categorization is made salient for potential helpers. Helping is extended to those who were previously identified as out-group members but not to those who do not display signs of group membership. Taken together, the studies show the importance of both shared identity between bystander and victim and the inclusiveness of salient identity for increasing the likelihood of emergency intervention.

A conceptual framework that identifies psychological and behavioral features associated with antecedents, experiences, and consequences of volunteerism is presented, and an inventory that measures 5 specific motivations for AIDS volunteerism is developed and cross-validated. Then a field study of 116 AIDS volunteers is presented in which a helping disposition, volunteer motivations, and social support (as antecedents), and personal satisfaction and organizational integration (as experiences) are used to predict duration of service over 2 1/2 years. Structural equation analyses indicate that dispositional helping influences satisfaction and integration but not duration of service, whereas greater motivation and less social support predict longer active volunteer service. The model is generalized to the prediction of perceived attitude change. Implications for conceptualizations of motivation, theoretical issues in helping, and practical concerns of volunteer organizations are discussed.

Preface Acknowledgments I. Overview Introduction to Helping An Overview of the Helping Process Ethical Issues in Helping Self-Awareness Cultural Awareness II. Exploration Stage Overview of the Exploration Stage Skills for Attending, Listening, and Observing Skills for Exploring Thoughts and Narratives Skills for Exploring Feelings Integrating the Skills of the Exploration Stage III. Insight Stage Overview of the Insight Stage Skills for Challenging Clients to Foster Awareness Skills for Facilitating Insight Skills for Immediacy Integrating the Skills of the Insight Stage IV. Action Stage Overview of the Action Stage Steps for Working with Four Action Tasks Integrating the Skills of the Action Stage V. Integration Putting It All Together: Working With Clients in the Three-Stage Model References Glossary Index About the Author

We conducted two studies to examine how a potential helper is affected by having a communal orientation toward a relationship with a potential recipient and by the potential recipient's sadness. We hypothesized that (a) having a communal orientation would increase helping and that (b) people high in communal orientation, but not others, would respond to a potential recipient's sadness by increasing helping. These hypotheses were tested in two studies. In Study 1, individual differences in communal orientation toward relationships were measured by using a new communal orientation scale reported for the first time in this article. In Study 2, manipulations were used to lead subjects to desire either a communal or an exchange relationship with another person. In both studies, subjects were exposed to a sad person or to a person in a neutral mood whom they were given a chance to help. As hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects helped the other significantly more than did others. Also as hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects but not others, increased helping in response to the other person's sadness although this effect reached statistical significance only in the second study.

Draws a distinction between attribution of responsibility for a problem and attribution of responsibility for a solution. Four general helping models are derived. In the "moral" model, actors are held responsible for both problems and solutions and are believed to need only proper motivation. In the compensatory model, people are responsible only for solutions and are believed to need power. Individuals in the medical model are responsible for neither problems nor solutions and are thought to need treatment. In the enlightenment model, actors are responsible for problems but are unable or unwilling to provide solutions; they need discipline. It is maintained that each set of assumptions has characteristic consequences for the competence, status, and well-being of actors and that the wrong choice of model in a situation will undermine effective helping and coping. Competing models of responsibility in education, psychotherapy, law, and welfare are described, and research on attribution of responsibility is recommended as a way of addressing problems of both theoretical and social significance. (128 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

In the decade following Latane and Darley's publication of the discovery that the presence of other people inhibits an individual from intervening in an emergency, numerous researchers have attempted to replicate this finding, extend its range of applicability, and determine what boundary conditions limit it. In the present article, we review both published and unpublished research, with special attention to the nature of the precipitating incident, the ambiguity of the helping situation, laboratory versus field settings, characteristics of the subjects, of the victim, and of other bystanders, and the amount and kinds of communication among bystanders. We conclude that, despite the great diversity of styles, settings, and techniques among the studies, the social inhibition of helping is a remarkably consistent phenomenon; but we identify some conditions under which the effect can be weakened or eliminated. Finally, we explore the implications of these findings for assessing and increasing a victim's likelihood of receiving help. Some 10 years have passed since Latane and Darley (1970) published their monograph reporting the results of a program of research on bystander intervention in emergencies. This research provided strong support for the general proposition that "the presence of other people serves to inhibit the impulse to help " (p. 38), Their work elicited a good deal of interest, and it has stimulated a large amount of subsequent research in this area. We see at least four reasons for the interest generated by this research. First, its high degree of mundane realism (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1968) spoke to an issue of widespread public concern—the alarm created by the failure of 38 witnesses to report

I. PROCESS CONSULTATION DEFINED. 1. What is Process Consultation? 2. The Psycho-Dynamics of the Helping Relationship. 3. Active Inquiry and Listening as Status Equilibrating Processes. 4. The Concept of Client. II. DECIPHERING HIDDEN FORCES AND PROCESSES. 5. Intra-Psychic Processes: ORJI. 6. Face to Face Dynamics: Cultural Rules on Interaction and Communication. III. INTERVENTION IN THE SERVICE OF LEARNING. 7. Communication and Deliberate Feedback. 8. Facilitative Process Interventions. I. Task Processes in Groups 9. Facilitative Process Interventions. II. INTERPERSONAL PROCESSES. 10. Facilitative Process Interventions. III. DIALOGUE. IV. PROCESS CONSULTATION IN ACTION. 11. Consultation in Action: Entry, Settings, Methods and the Psychological Contract. 12. Process Consultation and the Helping Relationship in Perspective.

Chapter 1: School Mathematics in a Changing World Chapter 2: Helping Children Learn Mathematics with Understanding Chapter 3: Planning for and Teaching Diverse Learners Chapter 4: Assessment: Enhanced Learning and Teaching Chapter 5: Mathematical Processes and Practices Chapter 6: Helping Children with Problem Solving Chapter 7: Developing Counting and Number Sense in Early Grades Chapter 8: Extending Number Sense: Place Value Chapter 9: Operations: Meaning and Basic Facts Chapter 10: Computation Methods: Calculators, Mental Computation, and Estimation Chapter 11: Standard and Alternative Computational Algorithms Chapter 12: Fractions and Decimals: Concepts and Operations Chapter 13: Ratio, Proportion, and Percent: Meanings and Applications Chapter 14: Algebraic Thinking Chapter 15: Geometry Chapter 16: Measurement Chapter 17: Data Analysis, Statistics, and Probability Chapter 18: Number Theory