Economic escape theory predicts flight initiation distance (FID, predator–prey distance when fleeing from an approaching predator begins), but currently cannot account for an observed increase in FID as alert distance (AD, predator–prey distance when a prey becomes alert to a predator), or its surrogate, starting distance (SD, predator–prey distance when approach begins) increases. The flush early and avoid the rush hypothesis suggests that FID increases as AD increases due to costs of monitoring the predator. However, the AD–FID relationship and the cost of monitoring have been questioned. Nevertheless, recent evidence shows that FID remains correlated with AD even when spontaneous movements are removed. We discuss possible effects of monitoring that might explain the AD–FID relationship and ways to improve understanding of the influence of spontaneous movements. We disentangle possible effects of 3 distinct phenomena associated with monitoring predators and incorporate them into escape theory. Cost of fleeing might increase as an attentional monitoring cost increases as duration of approach increases. Cost of not fleeing might increase as AD increases due to a physiological cost of monitoring and because assessed risk might increase as duration of approach increases. The attentional cost and effect on assessed risk occur in addition to the effect of decreasing distance in prey that do not account for duration of approach, while assessing costs of fleeing and not fleeing. Some of these effects may operate simultaneously. We describe research needed to better understand the flush early hypothesis and proposed costs associated with monitoring approaching predators.
Theoretical models of escape behavior suggest that the optimal distance at which an animal starts to flee (approach distance) increases with distance to the refuge. However, the extent of reliance on refuges may strongly affect this relationship. The lizard Psammodromus algirus escapes a predator by fleeing into leaf litter, which is very abundant but not a safe refuge because the predator could still locate and capture a concealed lizard. We test the hypothesis that escape decisions of this lizard species are based on the conspicuousness of individuals and the type of refuge used, rather than on the distance to cover per se. A field study showed that approach distance was not significantly correlated with distance to available refuges or distance actually fled. However, the type of microhabitat and the type of refuge used influenced the approach distance. Lizards started to flee earlier in microhabitats where they were presumably more visible to potential predators. Lizards ran to refuges that were similar in quality to, but farther from, the nearest available one. A longer flight may be needed to mislead the predator. However, because fleeing may be costly, the flight distance should be optimized. Thus, lizards ran farther and faster when they fled through unsafe microhabitats. Lizards with a low body temperature have lower escape performance and their approach distances should be greater. However, although air temperature affected escape speed, it was not significantly correlated with approach distance or flight distance. The relatively low reliance on refuges by P. algirus indicated that the expected relationship between escape decision and distance to the refuge did not exist. However, the results indicate that P. algirus optimizes its escape decisions according to the costs of fleeing and the costs of remaining.
The emigration of mathematicians from Europe during the Nazi era signaled an irrevocable and important historical shift for the international mathematics world. Mathematicians Fleeing from Nazi Germany is the first thoroughly documented account of this exodus. In this greatly expanded translation of the 1998 German edition, Reinhard Siegmund-Schultze describes the flight of more than 140 mathematicians, their reasons for leaving, the political and economic issues involved, the reception of these emigrants by various countries, and the emigrants' continuing contributions to mathematics. The influx of these brilliant thinkers to other nations profoundly reconfigured the mathematics world and vaulted the United States into a new leadership role in mathematics research. Based on archival sources that have never been examined before, the book discusses the preeminent emigrant mathematicians of the period, including Emmy Noether, John von Neumann, Hermann Weyl, and many others. The author explores the mechanisms of the expulsion of mathematicians from Germany, the emigrants' acculturation to their new host countries, and the fates of those mathematicians forced to stay behind. The book reveals the alienation and solidarity of the emigrants, and investigates the global development of mathematics as a consequence of their radical migration. An in-depth yet accessible look at mathematics both as a scientific enterprise and human endeavor, Mathematicians Fleeing from Nazi Germany provides a vivid picture of a critical chapter in the history of international science.
Fleeing Homophobia brings together a collection of socio-legal essays written by established and early career scholars of refugee law. The collection develops from the Fleeing Homophobia project, and an earlier conference on the same theme, and aims to provide a timely and critical analysis of law and practice in the adjudication of sexual orientation and gender identity-related asylum claims. The collection provides an important contribution to the growing body of scholarship now published on LGBTI asylum law. Its publication predates the CJEU decision in X, Y, Z , 1 and the ME v Sweden judgment 2 of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Frequent reference is made to the pending judgment in X, Y, Z , and the themes addressed throughout the collection continue to be of pressing relevance beyond these judgments. The significance of the UK Supreme Court judgment in the HJ (Iran) and HT (Cameroon) cases, and the move away from the so-called ‘discretion test’, is acknowledged throughout the collection. The 2012 UNHCR Guidelines draw upon the HJ and HT cases and, in a strongly worded comment, state, ‘As affirmed by numerous decisions in multiple jurisdictions, a person cannot be denied refugee status based on a requirement that they change or conceal their identity, opinions or characteristics in order to avoid persecution’. 3 Linking the application of the discretion test to a denial of rights, the Guidelines continue, ‘LGBTI individuals are as much entitled to freedom of expression and association as others’. 4
In the plankton, heterotrophic microbes encounter and ingest phytoplankton prey, which effectively removes >50% of daily phytoplankton production in the ocean and influences global primary production and biochemical cycling rates. Factors such as size, shape, nutritional value, and presence of chemical deterrents are known to affect predation pressure. Effects of movement behaviors of either predator or prey on predation pressure, and particularly fleeing behaviors in phytoplankton are thus far unknown. Here, we quantified individual 3D movements, population distributions, and survival rates of the toxic phytoplankton species, Heterosigma akashiwo in response to a ciliate predator and predator-derived cues. We observed predator-induced defense behaviors previously unknown for phytoplankton. Modulation of individual phytoplankton movements during and after predator exposure resulted in an effective separation of predator and prey species. The strongest avoidance behaviors were observed when H. akashiwo co-occurred with an actively grazing predator. Predator-induced changes in phytoplankton movements resulted in a reduction in encounter rate and a 3-fold increase in net algal population growth rate. A spatially explicit population model predicted rapid phytoplankton bloom formation only when fleeing behaviors were incorporated. These model predictions reflected field observations of rapid H. akashiwo harmful algal bloom (HAB) formation in the coastal ocean. Our results document a novel behavior in phytoplankton that can significantly reduce predation pressure and suggests a new mechanism for HAB formation. Phytoplankton behaviors that minimize predatory losses, maximize resource acquisition, and alter community composition and distribution patterns could have major implications for our understanding and predictive capacity of marine primary production and biochemical cycling rates.
The emigration of mathematicians from Europe during the Nazi era signaled an irrevocable and important historical shift for the international mathematics world. Mathematicians Fleeing from Nazi Germany is the first thoroughly documented account of this exodus. In this greatly expanded translation of the 1998 German edition, Reinhard Siegmund-Schultze describes the flight of more than 140 mathematicians, their reasons for leaving, the political and economic issues involved, the reception of these emigrants by various countries, and the emigrants' continuing contributions to mathematics. The influx of these brilliant thinkers to other nations profoundly reconfigured the mathematics world and vaulted the United States into a new leadership role in mathematics research. Based on archival sources that have never been examined before, the book discusses the preeminent emigrant mathematicians of the period, including Emmy Noether, John von Neumann, Hermann Weyl, and many others. The author explores the mechanisms of the expulsion of mathematicians from Germany, the emigrants' acculturation to their new host countries, and the fates of those mathematicians forced to stay behind. The book reveals the alienation and solidarity of the emigrants, and investigates the global development of mathematics as a consequence of their radical migration. An in-depth yet accessible look at mathematics both as a scientific enterprise and human endeavor, Mathematicians Fleeing from Nazi Germany provides a vivid picture of a critical chapter in the history of international science.
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This paper examines the discursive construction of refugees and asylum seekers (and to a lesser extent immigrants and migrants) in a 140-million-word corpus of UK press articles published between 1996 and 2005. Taking a corpus-based approach, the data were analyzed not only as a whole, but also with regard to synchronic variation, by carrying out concordance analyses of keywords which occurred within tabloid and broad-sheet newspapers, and diachronic change, albeit mainly approached from an unusual angle, by investigating consistent collocates and frequencies of specific terms over time. The analyses point to a number of (mainly negative) categories of representation, the existence and development of nonsensical terms (e.g., illegal refugee), and media confusion and conflation of definitions of the four terms under examination. The paper concludes by critically discussing the extent to which a corpus-based methodological stance can inform critical discourse analysis. 1
The eurozone crisis has altered the party political landscape across Europe. The most visible effect is the rise of challenger parties. The crisis not only caused economic hardship, but also placed considerable fiscal constraints upon a number of national governments. Many voters have reacted to this by turning their back on the traditional parties and opting instead for new, or reinvigorated, challenger parties that reject the mainstream consensus of austerity and European integration. This article argues that both sanctioning and selection mechanisms can help to explain this flight from the centre to challenger parties. First, voters who were economically adversely affected by the crisis punish mainstream parties both in government and in opposition by voting for challenger parties. Second, the choice of specific challenger party is shaped by preferences on three issues that directly flow from the euro crisis: EU integration, austerity and immigration. Analysing both aggregate-level and individual-level survey data from all 17 Western EU member states, this article finds strong support for both propositions and shows how the crisis has reshaped the nature of party competition in Europe.
1. Fleeing Homophobia. Asylum claims related to sexual orientation and gender identity in Europe, Sabine Jansen 2. Sexual Orientation and Refugee Status Determination over the Past 20 Years: Unsteady Progress through Standard Sequences?, Jenni Millbank 3. Discretion in sexuality-based asylum cases: An adaptive phenomenon, Janna Wessels 4. Accommodation: Sur place claims and the accommodation requirement, Hemme Battjes 5. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Refugees: Challenges in Refugee Status Determination and Living Conditions in Turkey, Giulia Cragnolini 6. Developing a Jurisprudence of Transgender Particular Socail Group, Laurie Berg and Jenni Millbank 7. Normativity and Credibility of Sexual Orientation in Assylum Decision Making, Louis Middelkoop 8. Invisible Intersections: Queer Interventions and Same Sex Family Reunification under the Rule of Assylum Law, Petra Sussner 9. Overcoming Problems with Sexual Minority Refugee Claims: Is LGBT Cultural Competency Training the Solution?, Nicole La Violette 10. Sexuality, normativity and asylum: An agenda, Thomas Spijkerboer
In the socio-technical imaginary of higher education, algorithmic decision-making offers huge potential, but we also cannot deny the risks and ethical concerns. In fleeing from Frankenstein’s monster, there is a real possibility that we will meet Kafka on our path, and not find our way out of the maze of ethical considerations in the nexus between human and nonhuman agencies. In this conceptual article, I map seven dimensions of student surveillance on an experimental matrix of human-algorithmic interaction to consider some of the ethical implications of algorithmic decision-making in higher education. The experimental matrix of human-algorithmic decision-making uses the four tasks of ‘sensing’, ‘processing’, ‘acting’ and ‘learning’ to open up algorithmic-human agency as comprising a number of possibilities such as (1) where only humans perform the task; (2) where the task is shared between humans and algorithms; (3) where algorithms perform the task but with humans supervising; and (4) where algorithms perform the tasks with no human oversight. I use this matrix to engage with seven dimensions of how higher education institutions collect, analyse and use student data namely (1) automation; (2) visibility; (3) directionality; (4) assemblage; (5) temporality; (6) sorting; and (7) structuring. The article concludes by proposing a number of pointers to be taken into consideration when implementing algorithms in a higher education context from a position of an ethics of care.
(2009). Fleeing from the Hurricane's Wrath: Evacuation and the two Americas. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development: Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 26-36.
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From the perspective of terror management theory, the human body is problematic because it serves as a perpetual reminder of the inevitability of death. Human beings confront this problem through the development of cultural worldviews that imbue reality-and the body as part of that reality-with abstract symbolic meaning. This fanciful flight from death is in turn the psychological impetus for distancing from other animals and the need to regulate behaviors that remind us of our physical nature. This analysis is applied to questions concerning why people are embarrassed and disgusted by their bodies' functions; why sex is such a common source of problems, difficulties, regulations, and ritualizations; why sex tends to be associated with romantic love; and why cultures value physical attractiveness and objectify women. This article then briefly considers implications of this analysis for understanding psychological problems related to the physical body and cultural variations in the need to separate oneself from the natural world.
The very first free-moving animals in the oceans over 540 million years ago must have been able to obtain food, territory, and shelter, as well as reproduce. Therefore, they would have needed regulatory mechanisms to induce movements enabling achievement of these prerequisites for survival. It can be useful to consider these mechanisms in primitive chordates, which represent our earliest ancestors, to develop hypotheses addressing how these essential parts of human behavior are regulated and relate to more sophisticated behavioral manifestations such as mood. An animal comparable to lampreys was the earliest known vertebrate with a modern forebrain consisting of old and new cortical parts. Lampreys have a separate dorsal pallium, the forerunner of the most recently developed part of the cerebral cortex. In addition, the lamprey extrapyramidal system (EPS), which regulates movement, is modern. However, in lampreys and their putative forerunners, the hagfishes, the striatum, which is the input part of this EPS, probably corresponds to the human centromedial amygdala, which in higher vertebrates is part of a system mediating fear and anxiety. Both animals have well-developed nuclear habenulae, which are involved in several critical behaviors; in lampreys this system regulates the reward system that reinforces appetitive-seeking behavior or the avoidance system that reinforces flight behavior resulting from negative inputs. Lampreys also have a distinct glutamatergic nucleus, the so-called habenula-projection globus pallidus, which receives input from glutamatergic and GABAergic signals and gives output to the lateral habenula. Via this route, this nucleus influences midbrain monoaminergic nuclei and regulates the food acquisition system. These various structures involved in motor regulation in the lampreys may be conserved in humans and include two complementary mechanisms for reward reinforcement and avoidance behaviors. The first system is associated with experiencing pleasure and the second with happiness. The activities of these mechanisms are regulated by a tract running via the habenula to the upper brainstem. Identifying the human correlate of the lamprey habenula-projecting globus pallidus may help in elucidating the mechanism of the antidepressant effects of glutamatergic drugs.
The 2004 hurricane season was the worst in Florida's history, with four hurricanes causing at least 47 deaths and some $45 billion in damages. To collect information on the demographic impact of those hurricanes, we surveyed households throughout the state and in the local areas that sustained the greatest damage. We estimate that one-quarter of Florida's population evacuated prior to at least one hurricane; in some areas, well over one-half of the residents evacuated at least once, and many evacuated several times. Most evacuees stayed with family or friends and were away from home for only a few days. Using logistic regression analysis, we found that the strength of the hurricane and the vulnerability of the housing unit had the greatest impact on evacuation behavior; additionally, several demographic variables had significant effects on the probability of evacuating and the choice of evacuation lodging (family/friends, public shelters, or hotels/motels). With continued population growth in coastal areas and the apparent increase in hurricane activity caused by global warming, threats posed by hurricanes are rising in the United States and throughout the world. We believe the present study will help government officials plan more effectively for future hurricane evacuations.
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Abstract The effect of interracial contact in public schools on the enrollment of whites has been an important concern in assessments of desegregation since the 1970s. It has been feared that “white flight”—meaning exit from or avoidance of racially mixed public schools—could undermine the racial contact that desegregation policy seeks to enhance. This study examines this question using recent data. It also expands coverage from large urban districts to entire metropolitan areas, paying attention to the spatial context within which enrollment decisions are made. To do so, it examines data for 1987 and 1996 on racial composition and enrollment in all schools and school districts in 238 metropolitan areas. The study finds that white losses appear to be spurred both by interracial contact in districts where their children attend school and by the opportunities available in metropolitan areas for reducing that contact. These findings apply with remarkable consistency to large and small districts in both large and small metropolitan areas. Implications for metropolitan segregation are examined. © 2001 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.
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