Since the Industrial Revolution, the increasing emissions of greenhouse gases have posed unprecedented challenges to sustainable human development. As one of the most vital terrestrial ecosystems, farmland ecosystems play an irreplaceable role in balancing carbon emissions and absorption, attracting growing scholarly attention. Taking Jiangsu Province, one of China's major grain-producing regions, as the study area, this research integrates the Slacks-Based Measure (SBM) model, the entropy-weighted method, and the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) to analyze the spatiotemporal evolution of farmland carbon effects-including carbon emissions, carbon absorption, and net carbon sequestration-during 2011-2021. Furthermore, a Grey Prediction Model was employed to forecast the carbon effects of 13 cities over the next 12 years. The results show that Jiangsu's farmland carbon emission efficiency exhibited an overall upward trend with fluctuations, with an average value of 0.76. The multi-year mean fitting degrees of resource input and agricultural output were relatively low, at 0.426 and 0.358, respectively, with substantial intercity differences. The average coupling coordination degree between resource input and agricultural output was 0.66, indicating a primary coordination state. The constructed GM (1,1) model achieved a qualification rate exceeding 73.80%, demonstrating its reliability for predicting farmland carbon effects. Forecasts suggest a potential weakening of the province's agricultural carbon sink effect, with the net carbon sequestration in 2033 expected to decline by 15.55% compared with the maximum value during the observation period. This study reveals the spatiotemporal characteristics and potential evolution patterns of farmland carbon effects, providing theoretical support for region-specific agricultural emission reduction policies and promoting the sustainable development of efficient, low-carbon agriculture.
The probiotics field, a historically popular yet scientifically debated discipline, is moving beyond a decades-long promotion of 'first-generation' food-derived strains towards the development of 'next-generation probiotics' (NGP) or 'precision probiotics', natural and engineered strains featuring improved human colonization, clinical efficacy and safety profiles. In this Review, we outline the evolution of NGP and means by which their development is designed to tackle challenges of live bacterial therapy related to colonization resistance, in-host evolution, long-term safety and insufficient understanding of therapeutic and off-target mechanisms of activity. We showcase how a variety of emerging strategies enable the identification of NGP strains and define consortia featuring therapeutic potentials in metabolic, immune and oncological diseases. Finally, we discuss how computational and artificial intelligence (AI) advances can reshape NGP development, including AI-based discovery of strains and bioactive compounds; computational-driven design of engineered microorganisms and multi-kingdom consortia; and AI-assisted structural and metabolic network-based modelling predicting personalized NGP function, interactions and therapeutic impacts.
Sclerotinia stem rot, caused by the necrotrophic pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (S. sclerotiorum), poses a significant threat to rapeseed (Brassica napus), resulting in substantial yield losses and economic damage worldwide. While receptor-like kinases, particularly the Catharanthus roseus RLK1-like (CrRLK1L) family, are known to play vital roles in plant immunity and development, their specific functions in B. napus defense against S. sclerotiorum and their evolutionary dynamics remain largely unexplored. Through a GWAS, we identified BnCrRLK1L1_5, a CrRLK1L family member, as a candidate gene conferring resistance to S. sclerotiorum. To understand its evolutionary context, genome-wide and phylogenetic analyses of the CrRLK1L family across three Brassica species were performed, revealing significant diversification driven by whole-genome duplications and gene loss. Nevertheless, key functional domains, such as the malectin-like and kinase domains, remained highly conserved. Further analysis of cis-elements and the identification of six BnCrRLK1L1 paralogs in B. napus suggested potential functional redundancy and broad roles in mediating stress responses. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the expression of BnCrRLK1L1_5 was strongly induced in resistant genotypes upon inoculation. Functional characterization using fer-4, a mutant of the Arabidopsis ortholog FERONIA (FER), showed enhanced susceptibility to S. sclerotiorum. Furthermore, complementation with BnCrRLK1L1_5 in the fer-4 background restored resistance to levels exceeding the wild-type, indicating functional conservation between BnCrRLK1L1_5 and FER. Co-expression of BnCrRLK1L1_5 with BAX in N. benthamiana leaves significantly reduced necrosis and ion leakage, suggesting that BnCrRLK1L1_5 functions as a suppressor of cell death. Moreover, protein-protein interaction network analysis predicted interactions between BnCrRLK1L1_5 and key partners, including BnCrRLK1L1_4, PTM9, RALF23, and Ferritin 4. These findings suggest that BnCrRLK1L1_5 modulates resistance through regulating cell wall integrity, oxidative stress, and immune signaling. Together, this study elucidates the dynamic evolution of the CrRLK1L family and establishes BnCrRLK1L1_5 as a key regulator of resistance against S. sclerotiorum. The potential mechanisms involving immune signaling and cell death regulation provide valuable insights for improving disease resistance in rapeseed and other crops.
The placenta is essential for fetal development, yet its molecular evolution across mammals remains elusive. Here, we present a comprehensive single-cell transcriptomic atlas of ~300,000 cells from ten species representing the four primary placental types: discoid, cotyledonary, diffuse, and zonary. Our cross-species analysis identifies trophoblast lineages as the primary drivers of placental diversification. By reconstructing differentiation trajectories, we elucidate the regulatory networks shaping trophoblast development across diverse architectures. We propose that the unique gene expression profile of human trophoblasts underlies the susceptibility to preeclampsia and miscarriage. Functional experiments demonstrate that TGIF1 acts as a key upstream regulator of extravillous trophoblast growth and migration. TGIF1 and its targets, including ADAM12, WNT3A, and ZNF831, are associated with preeclampsia and pregnancy loss. Collectively, this high-resolution framework provides fundamental insights into the molecular evolution of the placenta and its contribution to reproductive success and diseases.
Based on recent studies using both field surveys and laboratory experiments, we review a number of central reproductive traits of the androdioecious barnacle Scalpellum scalpellum. For the first time in any scalpellid species, development has been followed from cypris settlement until a mature dwarf male and compared with the early ontogeny of hermaphrodites. Cyprids settled in preformed receptacles on mature hermaphrodites started to deviate structurally from hermaphrodites almost immediately after attachment. After 14 days they had matured into adult dwarf males that do not resemble any stage in hermaphrodite ontogeny. Therefore, S. scalpellum males are not hermaphrodites arrested in development but the result of a much more profound evolutionary history. Settlement experiments showed that all cyprids are capable of settling and developing into hermaphrodites. Development into males happens only in cyprids attached in receptacles on adult hermaphrodites and must therefore be governed by environmental sex determination (ESD), presumably induced by some chemical factor(s) present only in the receptacle area. We observed mating between hermaphrodites and between a hermaphrodite and its dwarf males. Hermaphrodite to hermaphrodite mating resembles that seen in balanomorphan barnacles, except that adjacent specimens often check their environment with their cirri for the presence of a mating partner. Dwarf male mating is by means of a unique penis structure, made almost exclusively of cuticle and extending from inside the male and bending down into the brood chamber of its partner. This male penis is much larger (relatively to body size) than the structurally very different penis of the hermaphrodite individuals. The hermaphrodite recognizes when the dwarf male extends its penis and arrests its cirral motion so as not to damage or disturb its tiny partner. For the adult hermaphrodites we showed that their allocation of resources to male and female functions is in agreement with predictions from sex allocation theory. As predicted, solitary hermaphrodites allocated fewer resources to male function than those settled gregariously, where one or several hermaphrodite partners are within mating distance. The solitary individuals had both a shorter penis and less developed testes than the gregarious ones. As also predicted, solitary hermaphrodites were more likely to carry males than the gregarious ones.
Despite advances in therapies targeting hemodynamic and neurohormonal axes in heart failure (HF), incomplete reverse remodeling (RR) characterized by persistent myocardial edema and fibrosis remains a major clinical challenge. This review posits that dysfunction of the cardiac lymphatic system, a critical but understudied pathway for interstitial fluid and immune cell clearance, constitutes a fundamental barrier to complete myocardial recovery. We synthesize current evidence outlining the anatomy, developmental biology, and physiological role of cardiac lymphatics in maintaining myocardial fluid homeostasis and immune surveillance. In the context of HF, the lymphatic system undergoes a dynamic evolution: an initial compensatory lymphangiogenic response in the acute phase facilitates the clearance of edema and inflammatory cells, while its subsequent exhaustion or impairment in chronic HF perpetuates a vicious cycle of inflammation, fibrosis, and adverse remodeling. Central molecular pathways, including the VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 axis and transcriptional regulators like PROX1/FOXC2, govern lymphatic growth, integrity, and function. Furthermore, lymphatics actively modulate post-injury immune responses via specialized mechanisms such as CCL21/CCR7-guided cell trafficking. Therapeutically, augmenting cardiac lymphangiogenesis presents a promising strategy to enhance fluid drainage, resolve maladaptive inflammation, and directly support cardiomyocyte survival, thereby creating a conducive milieu for RR. However, translating this potential requires overcoming translational hurdles related to intervention timing, comorbidity-specific lymphatic dysfunction, and the development of targeted delivery systems. This review concludes that harnessing the cardiac lymphatic system represents a paradigm-shifting therapeutic avenue, complementary to existing regimens, with the potential to promote more complete and sustainable reverse remodeling in heart failure.
The oxygen evolution reaction (OER) using noble metal-based catalysts faced significant commercialization challenges due to the scarcity and substantial expense of these noble metals. Thus, the development of an efficient OER electrocatalyst for proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolyzers is still a challenging task. Herein, we present a facile approach to preparing cobalt phthalocyanine anchored on N-doped Co3O4 carbon network (Co3O4-NC) derived from metal organic framework (MOF). This strategy facilitates fast electron transfer and modulates the electronic structure. This improved electron transport induced by CoPc plays a significant role in enhancing OER, requiring only an overpotential of 1.2 V to deliver a current density of 1000 mA cm-2 with excellent stability. The Co3O4-NC2 Pc catalyst shows excellent durability during PEM water electrolysis and delivers industrially required current density of 1000 mA cm-2 at a potential of 1.66 V, outperforming commercial RuO2. The results of this research are twofold. Firstly, they promote green and low-carbon development. Secondly, they inject new vitality into the development of hydrogen energy technologies.
Antibiotic combination therapy is often used to broaden the antimicrobial spectrum, limit resistance and improve treatment efficacy. Several antibiotics show collateral effects where resistance to one antibiotic increases susceptibility to another. In intensive care units (ICUs), antibiotic treatments are frequently adjusted based on patient outcomes, without considering collateral effects. This provides a setting to study these effects in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), a highly adaptable, multidrug-resistant (MDR), nosocomial pathogen. We compared longitudinal PA isolates from twenty-five ventilated ICU patients receiving various antibiotics to laboratory strains undergoing in vitro adaptive evolution under four antipseudomonal monotherapies. Prolonged exposure to certain antibiotics produced resistance with collateral effects. In vitro, increasing antibiotic pressure drove distinct mutational trajectories. In patients, the number of antibiotics administered did not correlate with resistance changes to those antibiotics, suggesting that switching may reduce persistence of resistance. Notably, an inverse correlation between resistance to non-administered antibiotics and the number of different antibiotic classes administered, aligns with the principles of collateral susceptibility driven by multi-class exposure. This study provides s real-world evidence that empirical antibiotic mixing in ICU patients leverages evolutionary trade-offs. Consequently, diversifying antibiotic pressure via multi-class exposure may attenuate the fixation and persistence of MDR phenotypes in critical care.
Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are caused by acquired mutations in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). The acquisition of additional mutations like TP53 and the overall mutational burden influence a patient's risk of disease progression toward lethal post-MPN acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Recent technological advancements in linking single-cell gene expression with genotype have improved our understanding of tumor heterogeneity. However, current methodologies have limitations in simultaneously genotyping low-expression genes (such as JAK2) alongside other pathogenic loci. To address this, we developed a novel long read genotyping pipeline of cDNA transcripts called LOTR-Seq, which can genotype the full length of expressed transcripts of 30 genes at once. Using LOTR-Seq, we genotyped HSPCs at the JAK2V617 locus in 9,075 single cells from eight patients with chronic phase MPN (CP-MPN) and in 5,016 cells from four patients with post-MPN AML. We then linked the mutations to the single cell transcriptome of 29,712 JAK2V617F-driven CP-MPN cells and 16,895 post-MPN AML cells. In our analysis of post-MPN AMLs, we identified nine mutated loci across six genes (JAK2, IDH1/2, TP53, SRSF2, U2AF1) and linked these mutations to specific transcriptional phenotypes. Overall, LOTR-Seq provides novel insights into the evolution of post-MPN AML.
The Eocene radiation of cetaceans marks the evolutionary transition of whales from amphibious ancestors to fully aquatic forms within the clade Pelagiceti. Here we report the first fossil record of an Eocene whale from Poland, represented by a fragmentary posterior portion of a left dentary recovered from glauconitic sands of the Siemień Formation near Lubartów (eastern Poland). Biostratigraphic data based on calcareous nannoplankton and dinocyst assemblages place the fossil-bearing deposits near the Bartonian-Priabonian boundary (~38 Ma) within the epicontinental Central European Basin. The specimen preserves several closely spaced alveoli corresponding to double-rooted molars and a robust posterior dentary crest interpreted as a muscle attachment site, allowing referral to Pelagiceti indet. Comparative analysis of alveolar dimensions suggests that the animal was small-bodied, with an estimated total length of approximately 1.7-2.1 m. This size places it among the smallest known fully aquatic Eocene whales and indicates the presence of dolphin-sized pursuit predators in late middle Eocene marine ecosystems. The occurrence of such a small pelagic cetacean alongside large macropredatory basilosaurids supports the hypothesis that significant ecological and body-size differentiation within Pelagiceti had already developed by the Bartonian-Priabonian transition. Paleogeographically, the Polish locality occupied a central position within a shallow epicontinental seaway connecting the North Sea Basin with the eastern Tethyan realm. The new record therefore fills a key geographic gap between western and eastern European occurrences of Eocene whales and supports the existence of dispersal pathways across the Central European Basin during the early global expansion of fully aquatic cetaceans.
Antibody-based cancer therapy has rapidly evolved from monoclonal antibodies to bispecific and multispecific constructs that combine distinct binding specificities and mechanisms. These agents are seeing increasing clinical adoption, with European Medicines Agency approvals in haematological malignancies and selected solid tumours such as uveal melanoma and EGFR-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer. However, they are often still discussed as a single drug class, which does not capture the complexity of current formats and mechanisms, ranging from IgG-like to fragment-based architectures and from immune-cell redirection to dual immune modulation or oncogenic pathway blockade. This Series paper provides an integrated classification framework based on mechanism and format, relating key design features to pharmacology, efficacy, and safety. It synthesizes clinical evidence and ongoing development, discusses practical strategies to mitigate hallmark toxicities, and reviews emerging resistance mechanisms and rational combination approaches. It also outlines next generation directions, including higher order multispecific constructs, conditionally active antibodies, and payload conjugated multispecific formats. To consolidate these agents as an established therapeutic modality in oncology, priority should be given to rigorous understanding of mechanisms of action and toxicity, alongside rational optimisation of construct design and dosing, supported by robust prospective translational programmes.
Long before nature was 'red in tooth and claw', it was sundered by nano-spears and seeping poisons. Microorganisms were the first predators, and predation has since deeply shaped all major branches of life - from individual traits to collective systems, community dynamics and major evolutionary transitions. Yet, we have only begun to understand how microbial predation influences the genetics, morphology, behaviour, ecology and evolution of microorganisms in natural communities and, in turn, the macroscopic biosphere. With the field advancing rapidly on diverse fronts, integrative conceptual frameworks, questions and research approaches are needed to promote synthetic development of the field. In this Review, we explore the remarkably diverse forms of microbial predation that have evolved so far, considering organismal traits and their molecular foundations alongside the evolutionary ecology of predator-prey interactions in community contexts. Building on a process-based definition, forms of microbial predation are conceptualized along gradients, including gradients of evolutionary adaptedness for predation and of privatization of prey-derived nutrients. Important future research themes include predation origins and early stages of predatory adaptation, effects of diverse forms of predation on community diversity and stability, predator-prey co-evolution in complex communities, and multi-approach development of unicellular predators as biocontrol agents.
Coffee gets its alluring aroma mainly from volatile compounds generated during roasting. To elucidate the impact of roasting degree on coffee aroma, the odor characteristics and sensory quality of coffee with different roasting levels were investigated. Totally 111 volatiles were found in coffee, among which ester and heterocyclic compounds were dominant, exhibiting an inverse relationship in proportions as roasting intensity increased. Thirty-four volatiles were identified as markers to distinguish coffee samples at different roasting stages using partial least squares discriminant analysis. Among 32 aroma-active compounds with odor activity value (OAV) above one, ethyl 2-methylpropanoate having the highest OAVs in each sample was the key contributor to fruity odor. High-roasting treatment proved essential for developing a coffee aroma with strong roasted, burnt, and smoky odors, yielding the highest overall sensory scores. Current findings lay a scientific foundation for producing preferred coffee and shed light on the chemical reactions unfolding during roasting.
The integration of genomic sequencing into newborn screening (genomic newborn screening; gNBS) has the potential to identify more presymptomatic babies who could benefit from early intervention compared to traditional universal newborn screening (NBS). Realizing these benefits requires careful navigation of ethical, legal, and social implications (ELSI) to minimize harms, promote equity, and maintain trust in NBS programs. The primary objective of this scoping review is to synthesize the ELSI discussed in the gNBS literature, to support implementation and identify knowledge gaps. A secondary objective is to characterize the landscape and contours of the gNBS field. This review, conducted in July 2025, includes academic literature addressing genomic sequencing as a first‑line NBS screen. ELSI were identified within each publication, and these informed the development of a set of decision points with ELSI dimensions within gNBS. A total of 485 publications met inclusion criteria, with the first published in 1987. The volume of publications increased over time, with growing proportions of empirical studies and work associated with gNBS projects, alongside a decreasing proportion of publications from North America. In total, 3781 ELSI considerations were charted using AI-assisted methods, relevant to 59 decision points organized into nine areas. Current scholarship is concentrated on early implementation questions, while long‑term operational needs-such as data stewardship, clinical follow‑up, and sustainable governance-remain underexplored. These gaps, together with limited contributions from many regions due to a multitude of factors, highlight the need for more diverse, empirically grounded, and forward‑looking research to support responsible decisions around gNBS.
Rice seed storage proteins (SSPs) are major determinants of grain nutritional quality, serving as primary sources of dietary protein, energy, and essential nutrients. However, limited understanding of their diversity, evolution, and regulation constrains efforts to improve grain quality. This study aimed to perform a comprehensive genome-wide characterization of SSPs in rice. A combined homology- and domain-based approach was employed to identify SSP-encoding genes in the rice genome. These proteins were further analysed through phylogenetic reconstruction, domain and motif characterization, promoter cis-element analysis, expression profiling across seed developmental stages, and three-dimensional structural modelling. A total of 65 SSP genes were identified, including 19 previously uncharacterized members. Phylogenetic and domain analyses revealed evolutionary relationships between albumins and prolamins, and between globulins and glutelins. Tandem clustering of albumins, glutelins, and prolamins suggested gene duplication as a major driver of SSP family expansion. Expression profiling indicated that albumins, globulins, and glutelins were transcriptionally active from the S2 stage, whereas prolamins were predominantly expressed from the S3 stage onwards. Promoter analysis identified several seed-specific cis-regulatory elements, including CAATBOX1, EBOXBNNAPA, and DOFCOREZM. Structural modelling showed that albumins and prolamins are primarily composed of α-helices, while globulins and glutelins are enriched in β-strands and coils. This integrative analysis provides comprehensive insights into the classification, evolution, regulatory mechanisms, and structural features of rice SSPs. The findings establish a valuable resource for future functional studies and offer a foundation for strategies aimed at improving grain nutritional quality.
Fetal and neonatal connectomics, utilizing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), offers critical insights into early brain development, with transformative potential for neonatal care. This review synthesizes peer-reviewed research from 2007 to 2025, tracing the historical evolution, methodological advancements, and clinical implications of fMRI-based connectomics in fetuses and neonates. Early studies introduced resting-state fMRI, while initiatives like the Developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP) have expanded the field through large-scale datasets. Methodologies, including resting-state fMRI, independent component analysis, and network modeling, have identified small-world and modular network architectures, with predictive value for cognitive and language outcomes. Despite advantages like non-invasiveness and early disorder detection, challenges include motion artifacts in fMRI data acquisition, blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response variability, and sometimes sedation requirements. Future directions involve refining long-term outcome predictions, integrating multimodal imaging (e.g., EEG, NIRS), and developing neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) protocols. This review, drawing on available peer-reviewed sources, highlights the field's growth and limitations, advocating for standardized protocols and interdisciplinary collaboration to bridge research and clinical practice, ultimately improving outcomes for high-risk neonates. IMPACT: This review of fetal and neonatal connectomics adds the following to existing literature. Systematic, historical review of the development of fetal and neonatal connectomics using fMRI. Detailed resources for researchers to utilize existing databases for interpretation of findings as well as describing the technical, biological, and ethical challenges limiting clinical application of these findings. Provides key research gaps in translating connectomics findings into clinical applications as well as suggestions for addressing those gaps.
The formation of a body-axis is central to animal development and involves both polarity and morphology. While polarity is traditionally associated with biochemical patterning, the morphological aspect of axis formation remains elusive. In regenerating Hydra tissues, we find that morphological evolution in all tissue samples depends on inherited positional information from the donor's axis, and a foot precursor emerges early in the process. From the onset of regeneration, the Ca2+ excitations that drive actomyosin forces for tissue reshaping follow a gradient aligned with the inferred head-foot polarity direction. We conclude that polarity and morphological axis progression occur concurrently through interlinked processes. In this progression, the early and reproducible emergence of a foot precursor provides a robust morphological marker of axis formation, a role often discussed primarily in the context of the head organizer. A toy model accounts for the observed regeneration dynamics and illustrates the mechanochemical integration of polarity and morphogenesis. We expect the insights from Hydra to be relevant to broader developmental systems.
Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are a promising innovation in precision oncology, combining tumor-targeting antibodies with potent cytotoxic molecules to improve their therapeutic index and outcomes. This Series paper explores the evolution of ADCs from early development to current EMA-approved therapies, highlighting the key advances in design and mechanisms of action. We expand on the critical components of ADCs (linkers, antibodies and payloads) and how the evolution of the linker technologies, site-specific conjugation and novel payloads are increasingly enhancing their therapeutic index. Pivotal clinical trials in solid and hematologic cancers are summarised, alongside the caveats related to efficacy, safety and accessibility. Challenges such as narrow therapeutic windows driven by dose-limiting toxicities/off-target effects and high production costs are discussed, as well as future directions including combination therapies, overcoming resistance mechanisms, and biomarker-guided patient selection. The need for ongoing innovation and collaboration is key to maximizing the clinical potential of ADCs in Oncology.
The fashion industry is undergoing a digital transformation, creating a pressing demand for digital fashion skills in Green TVET. However, a comprehensive mapping of sustainability-oriented digital fashion skills and their relationship to vocational teacher competency frameworks is still limited. The research conducted in this paper aims to map trends in existing research and identify key digital fashion skills that should be taught in Green TVET, which will be used in designing a digital fashion skills framework for future vocational teachers. The method used was a systematic literature review (SLR) using the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Additionally, bibliometric analysis was used to examine research patterns and the evolution of themes. As a result, 62 peer-reviewed journal articles indexed in Scopus and published between 2021 and 2025 were included according to predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The core skill domains identified in the digital fashion world for future vocational education teachers in Green TVET resulted in eight skills: 1) Digital Design Skills, 2) Digital Pattern Skills, 3) Digital Production Skills, 4) Digital Sustainability Skills, 5) Digital Ethics & Data Security Skills, 6) Digital Learning & Pedagogy Skills, 7) Digital Communication & Marketing Skills, and 8) Digital Entrepreneurship Skills. Overall, these domains form a competency framework that encompasses the technical, cognitive, and pedagogical dimensions of sustainability-oriented vocational fashion teachers. This study provides a robust, evidence-based foundation for transforming the fashion vocational curriculum, creating professional development schemes, and strengthening policy measures targeting the development of digital and green skills in vocational education and training (TVET). The proposed framework paves the way for training the next generation of fashion teachers who are ready to face the challenges of digitalization and sustainability.
Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) encompasses a highly heterogeneous spectrum of severe immune-mediated neurological disorders. Over the past 50 years, research has expanded rapidly, yet a quantitative synthesis of its evolution, key contributors, and thematic trends is lacking. Here, we provide a comprehensive 50-year, multi-database bibliometric study that systematically maps the full trajectory of AE research-from early descriptions to the current era of mechanism-driven therapeutics-using advanced analytical tools. We systematically retrieved AE-related publications from 1971 to May 24, 2025 from PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. After deduplication, records were analyzed using bibliometric tools (CiteSpace, VOSviewer, Bibliometrix). Analyses included publication trends, national/institutional contributions, author networks, journal distributions, co-citation patterns, keyword co-occurrence, and thematic evolution. Annual publications surged after 2007, coinciding with the discovery of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis (anti-NMDAR AE), reaching a peak in 2022. The USA and China were the leading contributors by volume, while Spain had the highest average citation impact. The University of Pennsylvania and the University of Oxford emerged as the most productive institutions. Dr. Josep Dalmau is the most prolific author in the field, leading a major collaborative cluster. Frontiers in Neurology published the most papers, while Neurology had the highest H-index. Keyword and thematic analyses confirmed anti-NMDAR AE as the dominant research focus, with intense scholarly interest in its pathogenesis, diagnosis, and immunotherapy. Recent trends highlight emerging topics like COVID-19-associated AE, anti-IGLON5 disease. This study outlines the development, collaboration patterns, and research hotspots in AE. Research continues to center on anti-NMDAR encephalitis, with a growing focus on clinical and therapeutic applications. Future directions include mechanistic studies, biomarker discovery, and advanced immunotherapies.