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Groote Eylandt, Australia, is an island of international conservation significance as well as the site of one of the world's largest manganese (Mn) mines. Endangered northern quolls (Dasyurus hallucatus) living near active Mn mining sites on Groote Eylandt accumulate Mn at higher concentrations in the hair, testes, and brain than do animals living far from the mine. However, little is known about the potential developmental effects of Mn exposure on the tissues of quolls or other marsupials, and marsupial histology and ecotoxicology are relatively under-studied. We examined relationships between exposure to Mn and other toxic metals with histological endpoints of quolls and northern brown bandicoots (Isoodon macrourus). Male quolls (n =  18) and bandicoots (n = 9) were live trapped both near and far from mining activities, euthanized, and then dissected for target tissues (liver, lung, muscles [bicep, quadricep, skull], olfactory bulb), which were preserved in formalin for histology. Tissues were prepared using H&E staining and analyzed with Leica imaging software. Although we did not find differences in most tissues between animals collected near vs. far from the mine, we found that Mn exposure was associated with altered muscle histomorphology of quolls, potentially affecting their ability to find food and avoid predators. Our results showed clear differences between the muscle histology of quolls and bandicoots. Given the ecological importance of Groote Eylandt and the conservation needs of species such as quolls and bandicoots, information on exposure to contaminants and effects on health and development is critical to successful management, including environmental remediation.
Herbicide exposure can alter plant secondary metabolism with consequences for insect host selection, yet its effects on volatile organic compound (VOC) signaling remain poorly understood. Red maple (Acer rubrum L.) is a widely planted ornamental tree frequently attacked by flatheaded borers (Chrysobothris spp.), and herbicide injury has been associated with increased borer activity. We investigated how trunk application of two commercial herbicides, one contact herbicide (pelargonic acid) and one systemic herbicide (glyphosate), influence VOC emissions and associated nutritional and defensive chemistry in two red maple cultivars differing in susceptibility to Chrysobothris. Across a four-week field experiment, foliar VOCs were quantified alongside sugars, polyphenols, and tannins, and related to borer oviposition attempts and larval success. Herbicide exposure induced compound-specific and cultivar-dependent VOC responses, with the susceptible cultivar ('Brandywine') exhibiting greater temporal variability and elevated emissions of select monoterpenes, including β-myrcene. These VOC shifts coincided with increased foliar polyphenols and trunk sugar concentrations. In contrast, the less susceptible cultivar ('Autumn Blaze') showed comparatively stable chemical profiles across treatments. Oviposition attempts and larval occurrence were concentrated on herbicide-treated 'Brandywine' trees, particularly following contact herbicide exposure. Together, these results suggest that herbicide-induced modulation of VOC signaling, coupled with changes in nutritional and defensive chemistry, may influence adult host selection, larval performance following oviposition, and ultimately enhance host suitability and apparency to Chrysobothris.
Several aquatic invertebrates commonly used in standardized ecotoxicological bioassays exhibit cryptic diversity, a factor often overlooked in environmental risk assessment. Cryptic diversity raises concerns about the reproducibility and comparability of bioassay results. The calanoid copepod Eurytemora affinis is a cryptic species complex broadly distributed across the Northern Hemisphere in estuarine waters (0.5-20 PSU, Practical Salinity Unit). Thus, it represents a promising bioindicator species for assessing environmental risk in estuarine ecosystems. This study aims to assess the extent to which the cryptic diversity and the ecotoxicological responses observed within the E. affinis cryptic complex may compromise its usefulness in environmental risk assessment (ERA). The ecotoxicological responses of two E. affinis cryptic species (clades), the European (E) and the North Atlantic (NA) clades, originating from the Seine (France) and the St. Lawrence (Canada) estuaries, respectively, were assessed. Both clades were exposed to benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) using a standardized semi-chronic larval bioassay for 96 hr. Endpoints assessed included naupliar survival, growth and development. Median lethal concentrations (LC50) were calculated. The results showed that the E clade was 2.5-fold more sensitive than the NA clade with LC50 values of 8.41 and 22.24 µg L-1, respectively. Benzo[a]pyrene also had a greater effect on growth and development of the nauplius stages from the E clade compared to the NA clade. Such differential sensitivity is likely due to genetic divergence, phenotypic plasticity or environmental factors during sampling. Despite the observed inter-clade variation, the magnitude remains within the acceptable range of environmental variability considered in ERA. This study provides valuable insights into the implications of cryptic diversity for the use of E. affinis in ecotoxicological bioassays and supports its application within the ERA framework.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and microplastics (MPs) are new and widespread chemicals and pollutants with growing concerns due to their persistence, mobility, and threats, as well as their potential synergies in environmental and human health effects. This review gathers existing evidence on the importance of MPs as vectors of PFAS, specifically on adsorption processes, controlling variables, and inconsistencies between laboratory and field results. Laboratory investigations generally report relatively high sorption capacities, particularly for long-chain PFAS and polymers with nonpolar functional groups. Conversely, field-based investigations often report smaller and more variable adsorption capacities to biofilm formation, competition with natural organic matter, and environmental heterogeneity, despite showing similar relative trends. A geographic analysis of the literature indicates that most studies have been conducted in Asia, North America, and Europe, while other regions remain underrepresented. Overall, the results indicate that MPs can act as active carriers of PFAS rather than permanent sinks, thereby contributing to their transport, persistence, and biological exposure at different levels of the environment. This review underscores the purpose of integrated laboratory-field measures: expanded research on the emergent PFAS and enhanced analysis techniques are necessary to more accurately gauge environmental risks and inform pollution management and control metrics.
Perfluorooctane sulfonamide (PFOSA) is an environmentally persistent compound that poses a threat to human health, but its hepatotoxicity mechanism remains unclear. This study integrated the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) epidemiological data, network toxicology, bioinformatics analysis, and molecular docking simulation to systematically explore the hepatotoxicity mechanism of PFOSA from multiple levels. Potential targets of PFOSA and disease targets related to liver injury were screened through multiple databases, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed, core targets were identified, and Gene Ontology (GO)/Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional enrichment analysis was conducted. Meanwhile, external validation was conducted through the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) dataset, and molecular docking was used to evaluate the affinity between PFOSA and key targets. Data from 2,476 NHANES participants (1999-2012) showed that there was a significant association between PFOSA exposure and liver function markers (aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total bilirubin (TBIL), etc.), establishing an association between the population level and liver injury. Through multi-database screening (CHEMBL, Search Tool for Interactions of Chemicals (STITCH), GeneCards, etc.), 623 intersection targets were identified, and 37 core targets were screened out. Among them, the top five were MDM2, HSP90AB1, HIF1A, MMP9, and TP53. The Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGG analyses highlighted the enrichment of cancer-related pathways, oxidative phosphorylation, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The molecular docking of PFOSA with the core target shows a strong binding affinity. Overall, PFOSA may induce liver steatosis, fibrosis, and carcinogenic risks by disrupting the apoptosis regulation of MDM2-TP53, HIF1A-mediated oxidative stress, and MMP9-driven extracellular matrix degradation. These findings emphasize the necessity of stricter PFOSA regulations and enhanced environmental monitoring in areas where NAFLD is prevalent, providing a framework for toxicity assessment and intervention strategies.
Copper (Cu) toxicity to aquatic organisms is influenced by various water chemistry parameters, including known relationships with hardness, pH and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Comparatively less is known about the influence of potassium (K) on Cu toxicity, and ambient K levels are rarely considered when evaluating the potential for Cu toxicity. However, Cu toxicity influences the regulation of both sodium (Na) and K. Acute toxicity tests with juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were conducted to further explore the relationship between K and Cu effect levels. Mixture toxicity tests demonstrated a more-than-additive response between the K and Cu. Tests with Cu conducted at four sub-lethal K concentrations (0.2 to 100 mg K/L) reduced median lethal concentrations (LC50s) of Cu in very soft water from 40 to < 10 µg Cu/L, with the increase in Cu toxicity correlated with K concentration (p=0.001). The increase in Cu toxicity as a result of K occurred regardless of whether the K salt contained an inorganic (chloride) or organic (acetate) counter-ion, and was observed in two low-hardness waters with different mineral compositions. Estimation of Cu risk based on Biotic Ligand (CuBLM) and Multiple Linear Regression (CuMLR) models were unchanged by elevated K, introducing uncertainty in Cu risk characterization, and were further confounded by DOC originating from acetate, which did not empirically modify Cu toxicity. Environmental concentrations of K, and corresponding ratios of Na/K, at which Cu risk may increase were identified and contextualized using real-world examples, including applications of potassium acetate (e.g., to mitigate ice buildup) and potassium chloride (e.g., to control invasive mussels).
Bioaccumulation assessment is a key component of chemical regulations, with fish-based bioconcentration factors (BCFs) serving as the standard metric. Because conventional fish BCF tests (OECD TG 305) require many vertebrates, alternative tests such as the amphipod Hyalella azteca BCF test (OECD TG 321, HYBIT) have been developed. However, physiological and ecological differences between fish and aquatic invertebrates affect chemical uptake and elimination, raising uncertainty when applying fish-based BCF thresholds directly to invertebrate data. In this study, empirical and model-based approaches were combined to compare bioaccumulation potential in H. azteca and fish. An evaluation of empirical BCFs showed consistent categorizations between H. azteca and fish for non-bioaccumulative chemicals (log KOW ≤ 4.5) and for recalcitrant organochlorines categorized as (very) bioaccumulative. In contrast, for biotransformed chemicals, H. azteca BCFs frequently exceeded fish BCFs and often surpassed regulatory thresholds, reflecting the amphipod's lower metabolic capacity. A food-chain bioaccumulation model was used to assess the influence of chemical (e.g.,, KOW, biotransformation rate constant) and biological (e.g.,, metabolic capacity) parameters. At log KOW 5, amphipod BCFs were lower than fish BCFs for poorly biotransformed chemicals. However, at log KOW ≥ 5, moderately to highly biotransformed chemicals showed higher BCFs in amphipods than both fish BCFs and biomagnification metrics (BMF, TMF), indicating potential overestimation of bioaccumulation potential. These findings highlight potential misalignment in bioaccumulation assessment outcomes when amphipod BCFs substitute fish data. Applying tiered, weight-of-evidence assessment frameworks that integrate multiple bioaccumulation metrics with biotransformation information can strengthen the scientific robustness of assessments and contextualize HYBIT results.
Areca nut (Areca catechu L., Arecaceae) contains bioactive alkaloids, including arecoline, arecaidine, and guvacoline, which are associated with pharmacological and toxicological effects. A rapid and sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for simultaneous quantification of these alkaloids in rat plasma and was applied to a toxicokinetic study. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a reversed-phase C18 column using gradient elution with aqueous and organic mobile phases containing a volatile acid modifier. Detection was performed by electrospray ionization in the positive ion mode with multiple reaction monitoring, and plasma samples were prepared by protein precipitation. The method was validated according to the current bioanalytical guidelines. The calibration curves showed good linearity (r > 0.99) over the tested ranges, the within- and between-run accuracy and precision were within ±15% (±20% at lower limit of quantification (LLOQ)), and the selectivity, carry-over, recovery, matrix effect, dilution integrity, and stability were acceptable. The LLOQs were 10 ng/mL for arecoline and guvacoline, and 100 ng/mL for arecaidine. The validated method was successfully applied for a toxicokinetic study in rats, and plasma concentration-time profiles of all analytes were characterized. These results show that the developed method is suitable for the quantitative determination of arecoline, arecaidine, and guvacoline in plasma and can be used in toxicokinetic and pharmacokinetic studies.
Inbuilt biochemical plant defense is the most reliable and sustainable solution to combat insect pest attacks. The stem borers, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) and Sesamia inferens (Walker), are major threats to maize production in tropical countries of the world. Present study was carried out on host selection behaviour, antibiosis and induced biochemical defense against these borer species. The study revealed that CPM 15 and CML 345 were less preferred, took greater time in host establishments, and exhibited antibiosis against C. partellus and S. inferens in comparison to other test genotypes. Damage caused by Sesamia inferens resulted in higher levels of total proteins, sugars, starch, carotenoids, phenols, ferric ion reducing powder, antioxidants, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, ascorbate oxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), and tyrosine ammonia lyase (TAL) compared to C. partellus across the test genotypes. However, C. partellus damage increased, and S. inferens decreased total lipids in all the test genotypes. In the case of C. partellus, 97.6% variability in larval preference was explained by catalase and ascorbate oxidase; 93.4% variability in host establishment time by total proteins, sugars and phenols; and 93.5% variability in antibiosis by total proteins, sugars and ascorbate peroxidase. However, 96.7% variability in larval preference was explained by total proteins, sugars, phenols and PAL; 96.1% variability in time to establish by starch alone; and 91.9% variability in antibiosis by ascorbate oxidase and TAL in the case of S. inferens. Finally, although more than 90% of the variability in larval preference and antibiosis was explained by various induced biochemicals, no common biomolecule was identified among the test genotypes that could defend against C. partellus and S. inferens.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of growing concern for their potential adverse environmental and human health effects. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances demonstrate remarkable environmental stability and are globally dispersed. These compounds have been detected in a variety of biological samples, including bird feathers, which have proven to be a reliable indicator for the bioaccumulation of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants. Feathers, composed mainly of keratin, accumulate PFAS, which have a documented affinity for proteins. Our study aims to determine the extent of PFAS exposure in three penguin species native to the Antarctic Peninsula. Feathers of Pygoscelis adeliae (Adélie penguins), Pygoscelis papua (Gentoo penguins), and Aptenodytes forsteri (Emperor penguins) were collected in 2013. Samples were collected from the Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station, Kopaitic Island, and the Chilean General Bernardo O'Higgins. Samples were analyzed for 38 PFAS compounds. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance concentrations were compared by species, age, and sampling location. Emperor penguins, on average, had the highest concentrations of total PFAS in feathers (137 ng g-1 dry wt), followed by Gentoo penguins (111 ng g-1 dry wt), and Adélie penguins (78 ng g-1 dry wt). Notably, short-chain carboxylic acids (<C8) predominated over sulfonic acids, contrasting with blood plasma studies and suggesting differential partitioning mechanisms between protein-rich feathers and lipid-rich tissues. This is one of the few studies that demonstrate species-specific PFAS accumulation patterns in penguin feathers. Our results provide critical baseline data for understanding PFAS biomonitoring in Antarctic ecosystems.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) persist for decades when released into the environment and bioaccumulate in aquatic and terrestrial environments, resulting in harmful concentrations of PCBs in fishes, birds, and humans. Approximately 310,000 metric tons of PCBs were produced at a facility in Anniston, Alabama from 1929-1971. Hundreds of metric tons of PCB-contaminated waste were suspected to have been released into local environments. This study was the first systematic exposure assessment of the degree and extent of PCBs and potential co-contaminants-polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, Pb, and Hg-in avian tissues downstream of the Anniston facility. We collected 122 egg and 36 nestling tissue samples from across four exposure areas downstream of the facility and a reference site. A total of seven bird species were collected, but samples were predominantly Carolina wren (resident, Thryothorus ludovicianus) and barn swallow (migratory, Hirundo rustica). Concentrations of Pb and Hg in bird tissues collected from the exposure areas were less than toxicity reference values, suggesting Pb or Hg exposures alone were unlikely to affect birds. Total PCB concentrations in avian eggs and nestlings collected from exposure areas were among the greatest ever recorded in birds collected in North America. The PCB congener profiles in this study, paired with results from previous soil and sediment sampling, suggest that PCB-contaminated sediment and soil were the likely source of elevated PCBs in the avian tissues. The PCB concentrations observed in birds downstream of the Anniston facility were at magnitudes that likely affect populations of both resident and migratory birds that utilize the area for foraging and reproduction.
Microplastic (MP) bioaccumulation and biomagnification in marine food webs remains poorly understood, specifically trophic transfer from primary consumers to higher trophic levels. Although MP transfer has been studied in various organisms including fish, crustaceans, and gelatinous zooplankton, most existing research relies on short-term laboratory studies or simple field investigations lacking data on seasonal variations. This study fills that gap by tracking MP ingestion and transfer over time, across spatial gradients, and among developmental stages in Matagorda Bay, Texas. Field-collected samples of the copepod Acartia tonsa and the jellyfish Stomolophus meleagris were examined and laboratory exposures to assess MP body burden, survival, and morphological effects were conducted. Seasonal differences in MP concentrations and ingestion patterns were observed, with higher MP burdens correlating with rainfall and runoff. Laboratory exposures revealed increased MP accumulation in both copepods and jellyfish, along with a significant reduction in jellyfish bell diameter over time. The findings revealed notable trends in seasonal variation, species-specific MP uptake, and potential sublethal impacts on zooplankton and gelatinous predators. This study advances overall understanding of MP trophic dynamics in estuarine food webs and verifies the need for temporally resolved multi-trophic assessments. The findings contribute to and necessitate further long-term, multi-trophic monitoring to inform mitigation strategies for MP contamination in coastal ecosystems.
Lipid metabolism and transport are essential physiological processes necessary to survival and daily function. Impairment of lipid transport and metabolism through factors such as dietary alterations or exposure to some exogenous chemicals can lead to deleterious health outcomes in individuals and populations. For example, in birds, lipid metabolism is critical throughout their life cycle, including reproduction, migration, and overwintering. Nuclear receptor signaling, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling, plays a major role in avian lipid metabolism, and PPAR transcripts vary throughout the annual cycle. Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), a ubiquitous and persistent environmental contaminant causes PPAR-mediated changes in hepatic lipid metabolism, including steatosis, in some vertebrate species, primarily mammals. However, the evidence for changes in PPAR signaling and downstream lipidomic effects is mixed and inconclusive in birds. Grounded in an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) perspective within a taxonomic domain of applicability (tDOA) approach, we utilized the Sequence Alignment to Predict Across Species Susceptibility (SeqAPASS) tool to help assess the degree of cross-species conservation of proteins in several key steps in PFOS-PPAR signaling. Overall, the proteins in these pathways had high structural similarity between mammalian and avian taxa, suggesting a potential susceptibility of avian PPAR-mediated lipid metabolism to PFOS. However, receptor susceptibility does not necessarily cause downstream adverse physiological outcomes. Differences in avian and mammalian physiology and gene expression, nuclear receptor crosstalk, and downstream protein sequences may all contribute to the taxonomically disparate body of evidence of PFOS triggering PPAR-mediated steatosis in different vertebrate species.
Air pollution remains a pressing concern in urban India, affecting human wellbeing and ecosystem sustainability. This investigation explores the spatial and temporal variations in 10 μm particulate matter (PM10), nitric oxides (NOX), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) air pollution in Navi Mumbai, India, from 2014-2023. Data from 23 monitoring points were analyzed using geographic information systems-based methods, including inverse distance weighting and weighted overlay analysis, to generate a comprehensive pollution index. Findings indicate high seasonal variation, with elevated PM10 and NOX levels during premonsoon and winter due to traffic, industrial activity, and unfavorable meteorological conditions. Monsoon rains significantly reduced pollutant levels. Industrial hotspots, particularly in Taloja and Kalamboli, and traffic-heavy corridors, such as Vashi and Nerul, remained persistent pollution sources. A noticeable drop in pollutant concentrations in 2020 coincided with the COVID-19 lockdown, although levels surged in subsequent years. The weighted overlay analysis proved effective in identifying pollution hotspots and offering a comprehensive understanding of air quality risks. Global comparisons highlight the specific challenges of coastal satellite cities, where industrial and harbor emissions contribute to seasonal smog. This study emphasizes the need for targeted emission controls and urban planning interventions to improve air quality and sustainability in rapidly growing regions.
Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is an organophosphate insecticide that primarily exerts toxicity through acetylcholinesterase inhibition. Additional mechanisms, including disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, remain poorly understood. We examined the effects of early-life CPF exposure in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), with emphasis on HPA axis-related endpoints and toxicity thresholds. In a range-finding pilot study, unincubated quail eggs were injected in the air cell with solvent control (DMSO) or 20 µg/g CPF, and hatching success was monitored. Based on these results, a definitive study was conducted with five treatment groups: DMSO, 0.1, 1, and 10 µg/g CPF, and a corticosterone positive control (CORT; 0.12 ng/g). Forty eggs per group were incubated at 37.5 °C until hatching. Chicks were assessed for physiological endpoints (survival, growth, plasma corticosterone levels) and behavioural endpoints (tonic immobility, neophobia, and novel environment exploration) until 8 days post-hatch. Hatching success in the pilot and the definitive studies suggested an approximate LD50 between 10 and 20 µg/g CPF. Sublethal effects included an increase in body weight of 9% per day at 0.1 µg/g CPF compared to control, and reduced tonic immobility and activity at 1 and 10 µg/g CPF, respectively. No other endpoints were affected up to the highest tested concentration of CPF or in response to the CORT positive control. Overall, we observed post-hatch effects at concentrations below those previously reported to affect pre-hatch growth (40 µg/g CPF) and transcriptomic responses (4 µg/g CPF). Although our study showed little evidence for an effect of CPF on the HPA axis, our findings refine CPF toxicity thresholds and improve understanding of its mechanisms of action during early avian development.
A clear gap in ecotoxicological data was identified regarding the impacts of the technologically critical lanthanide neodymium (Nd) on soil invertebrates in boreal soil. To address this gap, two inorganic metal salts (NdCl3 and Nd2(SO4)3), an organometallic compound Nd-2-ethylhexanoate (Nd-2-EHA) and its organic component 2-ethylhexanoic acid (2-EHA) were examined. Toxicity exposures were conducted using the earthworm Dendrodrilus rubidus, the collembolan Proisotoma minuta, and the oribatid mite Oppia nitens, in two Canadian boreal soil horizons (i.e., organic and mineral), using standardized soil toxicity test methods; effects included survival and reproduction. Different exposure scenarios were investigated, including aging of test soil for 6 months, and the impact of leaching on toxicity test endpoints. Differences in species sensitivity were observed, with D. rubidus identified as the most sensitive test species. The study highlighted the importance of reporting chemical parameters within toxicity tests, such as electrical conductivity and pH, to better understand test system influences and factors affecting toxicity. Toxicity estimates from leached and aged NdCl3 exposures provided the least confounded assessment of Nd toxicity (reproductive median inhibitory concentration [IC50] for D. rubidus: 890 [767-950] mg Nd kg-1 dry soil), as leaching reduced salt-related effects. Incorporating measures of extractable Nd proved valuable for comparing toxicity across the substances. Despite the lowest measured extractable and total Nd, the organometallic, Nd-2-EHA, was the most toxic compound tested (reproductive IC50 for D. rubidus: 17 [10-30] mg Nd kg-1 dry soil), largely influenced by the organic component (2-EHA) when tested at equivalent concentrations. Exposure to 2-EHA and Nd-2-EHA demonstrated a significant decrease in toxicity with aging. These findings aligned with existing frameworks such that a metal-moiety approach may be insufficient for organometallics, wherein inorganic and organic influences must be considered.
Contamination of food and feed by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) remains a major global concern due to its toxicity, carcinogenicity, and persistence in the food chain. Environmental and climatic pressures continue to favor aflatoxigenic fungal contamination, highlighting the need for effective and sustainable detoxification strategies. Biological detoxification has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional physical and chemical treatments. This systematic review, conducted following PRISMA guidelines, summarizes microbial and enzymatic approaches for AFB1 detoxification, focusing on bacteria, yeasts, and microbial enzymes. The literature shows a predominance of bacterial systems, especially lactic acid bacteria and Bacillus species, mainly acting through adsorption, fungal growth inhibition, and suppression of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Yeasts, although less represented, also showed promising detoxification capacities through adsorption and biodegradation-related mechanisms. Enzymatic systems achieved the highest efficiencies, particularly oxidative enzymes such as laccases and dye-decolorizing peroxidases, often exceeding 90% detoxification under optimized conditions. However, industrial application remains limited by laboratory-scale validation, variability among protocols, incomplete toxicological assessment of degradation products, and limited evidence in complex food and feed matrices.
The accumulation of engineered nanomaterials and nanoplastics in soils, especially sludge-treated soils, raises concerns regarding their potential environmental hazard and risks. This work applies probabilistic environmental risk assessment based on probabilistic species sensitivity distributions (pSSD) and published data from exposure models to derive risk characterization ratios (RCR) for four non-dissolvable nanomaterials: TiO2, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene-based materials (GBMs), and polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-nanoplastics). Median predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values were found to be 36, 1.5, 56, and 0.5 mg.kg-1, for TiO2, CNTs, GBMs and PS-nanoplastics, respectively. No statistically significant differences were found between the effects of nanomaterials on plants versus invertebrates, or on monocotyledonous versus dicotyledonous plants. Form-specific comparisons also showed no statistical difference among the different nanomaterial forms (TiO2: P25 vs. anatase vs. rutile; CNTs: multi-walled CNTs vs. single-walled CNTs; GBMs: graphene vs. graphene oxide vs. reduce graphene oxide). At currently predicted environmental concentrations in European soils, none of the materials exhibits an environmental risk, except for TiO2-NPs in sludge-treated soils, where 66% of the simulations resulted in a RCR higher than 1 (median RCR = 1.38). However, a projected increase in environmental concentrations over time can result in larger potential risks in the future. This work also highlights the limitations of the current state of the art in terms of the availability of environmentally relevant ecotoxicity data in soils and of realistic predicted environmental concentrations.
Mercury (Hg) is a global pollutant threatening ecosystems, mainly via methylmercury (MeHg) biomagnification in food webs. Microalgae are the primary entry point, yet the toxicity of its different forms in them is still understudied. This study compared, for the first time, the time-dependent effects (3-96 hr) of inorganic Hg (IHg) and MeHg at concentrations of 10-5-10-8 g/L on the green microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Flow cytometry and chlorophyll fluorescence revealed contrasting physiological and photosynthetic responses. Inorganic Hg was more toxic at 3 hr than MeHg, reducing growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and chlorophyll autofluorescence, and increasing mortality. Effects of IHg decreased over time, with reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mortality below control by 96 hr. In contrast, MeHg at 10-5 g/L caused sustained growth inhibition, elevated ROS, increased chlorophyll autofluorescence, and cell death beyond 24 hr. Differences in energy dissipation and photosystem II (PSII) recovery further indicated distinct toxicity targets. At lower concentrations, both forms triggered time- and concentration-dependent responses, including transient growth inhibition, stimulation, and ROS changes, likely reflecting hormesis and metabolic trade-offs. These responses may affect growth, photosynthesis, and ROS processes. They highlight the need for time-resolved assessments to capture adaptation-toxicity thresholds. This study strengthens the understanding of Hg toxicity in primary producers and its ecotoxicological risks.