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Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease with worldwide distribution that is endemic in the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, Central Asia, and parts of Africa and Latin America. Worldwide, brucellosis remains a major cause of morbidity in humans and domesticated animals. In animals, bovine brucellosis, caused mainly by Brucella abortus, is still the most widespread form. In humans, ovine/caprine brucellosis caused by Brucella melitensis is by far the most common type of disease. The disease has a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations and can affect a variety of organs and systems. Localized and complicated forms of brucellosis cause important morbidity and require prolonged medical treatment. Fortunately, mortality is relatively low and is related mainly to cardiovascular and central nervous system complications of the disease. Although several studies have been conducted over the past 2 decades, there is no conclusive evidence on the optimum antibiotic therapy for brucellosis. Disease relapse still represents one of the most important therapeutic problems. The last recommendation by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the treatment of acute brucellosis in adults was published in 1986 and suggested 600 to 900 mg rifampin and 200 mg doxycycline daily for a minimum of 6 weeks (8). Alternatively, the WHO suggested that rifampin could be replaced with 15 mg/kg of streptomycin, administered intramuscularly for only 2 weeks. However, a meta-analysis, as well as a prospective randomized trial, both performed by Solera et al., showed that the “good old” combination regimen of streptomycin with an oral tetracycline results in fewer relapses than the doxycycline-rifampin combination (57, 58). Controlled clinical trials with other antibiotics, including trimethoprim-sulfomethoxazole, new macrolides, and β-lactams, have shown inferior results or involved too few patients for a proper evaluation. Thus, the most widely used regimens are the two aforementioned combinations that were recommended by the WHO. In addition, rifampin monotherapy is the main option for brucellosis during pregnancy, whereas its combination with trimethoprim-sulfomethoxazole is the suggested treatment for childhood brucellosis (5, 34). Certain focal forms of brucellosis are difficult to treat, and surgery should be considered for patients with endocarditis or cerebral, epidural, splenic, or other abscesses (20, 41). Regarding medical treatment, although the antibiotics used are essentially the same, prolonged therapy, up to six or more months, may be needed for patients with osteoarticular forms of the disease, and especially spondylitis (18, 56, 65). Also, triple-antibiotic combinations were found to be of value in some case series of brucellar endocarditis, spondylitis, and meningitis (2, 41, 65). Relapse of the disease also represents a major therapeutic problem for its focal forms. Since the mid 1980s, laboratory researchers and clinicians have performed several microbiological and clinical studies of the possible use of quinolones in the treatment of human brucellosis. The activity against intracellular bacteria (23), reduced risk of nephrotoxicity, good pharmacokinetic characteristics, and lack of a requirement for drug level monitoring represent the main advantages of using quinolones in this setting. Moreover, the need for a regimen that would eliminate disease relapse further necessitated the use of quinolones. However, there is only one brief review focusing on the issue, published in 1992 (38). This study reviewed the available in vitro and clinical data at the time and examines the rationale, as well as the outcomes, of quinolone use for brucellosis.

An overview of the microbiology and nutritional composition of eight (8) insects, Bunaea alcinoe, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Gonimbrasia belina, Gryllotalpa africana, Cirina forda, Brachytrupes membranaceus, Macrotermes natalensis, and Anaphe venata used as food is presented. All the edible insects whose microbiological flora is known have mixed population of bacteria with Bacillus and Staphylococcus persistently occurring. The Gram-negative population is more diverse and included members of the genera, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas and Serratia. Available data show that edible insects contain protein concentrations ranging from 22.06 to 74.35% (Lepidoptera (≥ 38+ to 74.35%), Coleoptera larva (22.06 to 30.30%), Coleoptera adult (26.85 to 32.71%), Isoptera (35.06%) and Orthoptera (65.62%). The larval forms seem to have a high fat content compared to the adult forms. The ten essential amino acids are present in varying amounts while the major fatty acids are palmitic, oleic and linoleic, which is highly unsaturated. Different species of Rhynchophorus species may have different quantities of amino acids or indeed, domestication may affect the quantities of amino acids of Rhynchophorus species. The major fatty acids (occurring at more than 10%) of R. phoenicis (Coleoptera) are palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid while those of G. belina and C. forda (Lepidoptera) are palmitic, oleic, linoleic and stearic acids. Macro-elements and micro-elements of R. phoenicis occur at significant amounts. Iron and magnesium occur in the order, Coleoptera, more than in Isoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera. There seems to be a dearth of information on the macro- and micro-elements, amino acid and fatty acid compositions of some insects. A more comprehensive, standardised and universally acceptable method for estimating proximate composition of edible insects is advocated so that values obtained can be scientifically compared. Further work on comprehensive nutritional studies and microbiological flora of edible insects and insect husbandry/farming are also advocated.

Enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) is a well-established technology for removing phosphorus from wastewater. However, the process remains operationally unstable in many systems, primarily because there is a lack of understanding regarding the microbiology of EBPR. This paper presents a review of advances made in the study of EBPR microbiology and focuses on the identification, enrichment, classification, morphology, and metabolic capacity of polyphosphate- and glycogen-accumulating organisms. The paper also highlights knowledge gaps and research challenges in the field of EBPR microbiology. Based on the review, the following recommendations regarding the future direction of EBPR microbial research were developed: (1) shifting from a reductionist approach to a more holistic system-based approach, (2) using a combination of culture-dependent and culture-independent techniques in characterizing microbial composition, (3) integrating ecological principles into system design to enhance stability, and (4) reexamining current theoretical explanations of why and how EBPR occurs.

Globally, waterborne gastroenteritis attributable to rotaviruses is on the increase due to the rapid increase in population growth, poor socioeconomic conditions, and drastic changes in climatic conditions. The burden of diarrhea is quite alarming in developing nations where the majority of the populations still rely on untreated surface water that is usually polluted for their immediate water needs. Humans and animals of all ages are affected by rotaviruses. In humans, the preponderance of cases occurs in children under 5 years. Global efforts in advancing water/wastewater treatment technologies have not yet realized the objective of complete viral removal from wastewater. Most times, surface waters are impacted heavily by inadequately treated wastewater run-offs thereby exposing people or animals to preventable health risks. The relative stability of rotaviruses in aquatic matrices during wastewater treatment, poor correlation of bacteriological indicators with the presence of rotaviruses, and their infectiousness at a low dose informed the proposal for inclusion in the routine microbiological water screening panel. Environmental monitoring data have been shown to provide early warnings that can complement clinical data used to monitor the impact of current rotavirus vaccination in a community. This review was therefore undertaken to critically appraise rotavirus excretion and emission pathways, and the existence, viability and persistence in the receiving aquatic milieu. The efficiency of the current wastewater treatment modality for rotavirus removal, correlation of the current bacteriological water quality assessment strategy, public health risks and current laboratory methods for an epidemiological study were also discussed.

The majority of dermal wounds are colonized with aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms that originate predominantly from mucosal surfaces such as those of the oral cavity and gut. The role and significance of microorganisms in wound healing has been debated for many years. While some experts consider the microbial density to be critical in predicting wound healing and infection, others consider the types of microorganisms to be of greater importance. However, these and other factors such as microbial synergy, the host immune response, and the quality of tissue must be considered collectively in assessing the probability of infection. Debate also exists regarding the value of wound sampling, the types of wounds that should be sampled, and the sampling technique required to generate the most meaningful data. In the laboratory, consideration must be given to the relevance of culturing polymicrobial specimens, the value in identifying one or more microorganisms, and the microorganisms that should be assayed for antibiotic susceptibility. Although appropriate systemic antibiotics are essential for the treatment of deteriorating, clinically infected wounds, debate exists regarding the relevance and use of antibiotics (systemic or topical) and antiseptics (topical) in the treatment of nonhealing wounds that have no clinical signs of infection. In providing a detailed analysis of wound microbiology, together with current opinion and controversies regarding wound assessment and treatment, this review has attempted to capture and address microbiological aspects that are critical to the successful management of microorganisms in wounds.

The drying of meat is one of the least expensive and most effective ways to preserve meat. This article reviews the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of foods in relation to the drying of meat and the role of microbial activities in the drying and storage of meat. The critical role of water activity and its relationship with other physical and chemical parameters and microbial survival in the drying of meat is also reviewed in detail. This article ends with a description of the various methods to measure water activity in foods. The conclusion is that the drying of meat is a highly complex phenomenon which is influenced by the composition of meat, its water holding capacity, the processing of meat, and various microorganisms found on meat before and after the drying process. There is no doubt that the drying of meat is an effective preservation process, but attention should be placed on the possible survival of microorganisms in the process in order to prevent spoilage and food-borne diseases.

Fruits and vegetables comprise an essential part of human diet as they are the major source of dietary nutrients of great importance. Consumption of fruits has been found to counteract many of the chronic diseases, including cancers and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, recommendations for a balanced diet must include the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables. Consumers in developing countries have become more concerned about the nutritional and sensory aspects as well as the safety of the food they eat due to growing health awareness. At the same time, consumer demand for convenience products is increasing and so is the demand for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. Fresh-cut market has expanded considerably in recent years. However, quality and safety of such products are an issue of concern as these products can act as vehicles for transmitting infectious diseases. Furthermore, fresh-cut produce is more susceptible to spoilage and can facilitate rapid growth of spoilage micro-organisms as well as the micro-organisms of public health significance. Nonetheless, keeping in consideration the vast scope of fresh-cut products, this article intends to thoroughly review information about microbiology and public health risks associated with them. Discussions regarding different approaches to extend the shelf life and to minimize the risk of infection associated with their consumption are also included.

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have been conceived and intensively studied as a promising technology to achieve sustainable wastewater treatment. However, doubts and debates arose in recent years regarding the technical and economic viability of this technology on a larger scale and in a real-world applications. Hence, it is time to think about and examine how to recalibrate this technology's role in a future paradigm of sustainable wastewater treatment. In the past years, many good ideas/approaches have been proposed and investigated for MFC application, but information is scattered. Various review papers were published on MFC configuration, substrates, electrode materials, separators and microbiology but there is lack of critical thinking and systematic analysis of MFC application niche in wastewater treatment. To systematically formulate a strategy of (potentially) practical MFC application and provide information to guide MFC development, this perspective has critically examined and discussed the problems and challenges for developing MFC technology, and identified a possible application niche whereby MFCs can be rationally incorporated into the treatment process. We propose integration of MFCs with other treatment technologies to form an MFC-centered treatment scheme based on thoroughly analyzing the challenges and opportunities, and discuss future efforts to be made for realizing sustainable wastewater treatment.

Hospitals are implementing antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASPs) in response to national guidelines to improve the use and to extend the utility of antiinfective drugs. An often implied purpose of ASPs is to curb or reverse the emergence of resistant bacteria. Because antibiotic use causes antibiotic resistance, there is a natural tendency to link local measures of antibiotic use to local measures of bacterial resistance, and the hospital antibiogram is a readily available measure of resistance. We performed a literature review to identify published reports that used hospitalwide and unit-specific antibiograms to assess the relationship of ASP interventions to changes in resistance. Eight studies were identified and reviewed. The relationship between hospital antibiotic use and resistance is complex, and the existing literature has several limitations. Furthermore, the antibiogram itself is neither designed nor well suited to reflect changes in hospital antimicrobial drug use. The literature on the effectiveness of ASPs in reducing resistance continues to emerge, but at this time the antibiogram bears an inconsistent relationship with changes in hospital antibiotic use and cannot be recommended to reliably evaluate an ASP intervention. Interrupted time series analysis is a superior strategy to assess the effect of an ASP intervention on bacterial resistance, but it is not widely used because of its complexity and greater data requirements. Nevertheless, before ASP efforts can be convincingly demonstrated to have a favorable impact on resistance, a more sophisticated approach that links drug use to resistance should become a priority, at least for hospitals that have sufficient resources.

Coryneform bacteria are aerobically growing, asporogenous, non-partially-acid-fast, gram-positive rods of irregular morphology. Within the last few years, there has been a massive increase in the number of publications related to all aspects of their clinical microbiology. Clinical microbiologists are often confronted with making identifications within this heterogeneous group as well as with considerations of the clinical significance of such isolates. This review provides comprehensive information on the identification of coryneform bacteria and outlines recent changes in taxonomy. The following genera are covered: Corynebacterium, Turicella, Arthrobacter, Brevibacterium, Dermabacter. Propionibacterium, Rothia, Exiguobacterium, Oerskovia, Cellulomonas, Sanguibacter, Microbacterium, Aureobacterium, "Corynebacterium aquaticum," Arcanobacterium, and Actinomyces. Case reports claiming disease associations of coryneform bacteria are critically reviewed. Minimal microbiological requirements for publications on disease associations of coryneform bacteria are proposed.

Microplastics are extremely small mixed shaped plastic debris in the environment. These plastics are manufactured (primary microplastics) or formed from the breakdown of larger plastics once they enter the terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments (secondary microplastics). Over time, a combination of physical, photochemical and biological processes can reduce the structural integrity of plastic debris to produce microplastics and even further to produce nanoplastics. NMPs have been detected in both the aquatic and terrestrial environments and can be easily spread by water, soil and air and can be ingested by a wide range of organisms. For example, NMPs have been found in the guts of fish and bivalve shellfish. Microplastics have also been detected in food and in human faeces. Therefore, NMPs are not only found in the environment, but they may contaminate the food supply chain and be ingested by consumers. There is evidence suggesting that microorganisms are able to colonise the surfaces of microplastics and aggregates of nanoplastics. However, the risk to consumers posed by NMPs colonised with microorganisms (including those that are AMR) which enter the food supply chain is currently unknown.

This paper presents an evaluation of the current EC meat inspection procedures, and some of their proposed revisions, in relation to their efficacy in assuring the microbiological safety and quality of meat, and the difficulties for health authorities and industry in providing such an assurance. It is concluded that neither the current nor the proposed revisions of ante and post mortem meat inspection procedures alone are sufficient, and that only integrated approaches, applied to each step of animal and meat production, will lead to better quality meat. Furthermore, for the design of a really effective and flexible long-term system of safety and quality assurance it is necessary to undertake a formal quantitative assessment of risk.

(1976). The Role of Leukocytes and their Hydrolases in the Persistence, Degradation, and Transport of Bacterial Constituents in Tissues: Relation to Chronic Inflammatory Processes in Staphylococcal, Streptococcal, and Mycobacterial Infections and in Chronic Periodontal Disease. CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology: Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 249-332.

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(1977). Ecological Aspects of Microbial Degradation of Petroleum in the Marine Environment. CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology: Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 423-445.

(1984). The Utilization of Inorganic and Organic Phosphorous Compounds as Nutrients by Eukaryotic Microalgae: A Multidisciplinary Perspective: Part 2. CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology: Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 13-81.

(1982). Microbial Exopolysaccharides - their Role in Microbial Adhesion in Aqueous Systems. CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology: Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 173-201.