Using a sample of 145 men convicted for sexually assaulting a woman, we examined perceived risks and difficulties in the context of noncompleted and completed sexual offences against women to help further understand the decision-making process of individuals who commit those crimes and offer complementary insights from a prevention point of view. The participants were 29 years old on average. We looked at the individual's accounts of their offending. First and foremost, the dominating response in regards to high ratings of difficulties in noncompleted offences was woman resistance. Second, intoxication was reported by participants to justify both high risk and the absence of risk during their offending. Third, participants who perceived no risk and completed a sexual offence against a woman further indicated, in almost half the cases, that they thought (or assumed) the woman had given her consent initially. Fourth, very few participants referred to environmental conditions when assessing the risks and difficulties of committing an offence. Lastly, the results are discussed in light of considerations for crime prevention.
The detection and persistence of biological evidence in child sexual abuse cases are critical in forensic practice, particularly when delays in presentation or post-incident actions may compromise DNA recovery. This study evaluated the forensic yield of swab, clothing, and crime scene examinations in relation to post-incident time interval (PIT), anatomical region, victim post-incident actions, and autosomal STR and Y-STR analyses. This retrospective study examined 417 swab samples (361 anogenital, 56 body surface), 68 clothing, and 22 crime scene examinations from 136 child sexual abuse cases. Molecular analysis results were obtained from official forensic laboratory reports. PIT was categorized as Day 0, Days 1-3, and Days 4-10. Post-incident actions, including bathing and clothing change, were recorded. DNA positivity was defined as the recovery of an interpretable male DNA profile, based on autosomal STR analysis and/or a reportable Y-STR haplotype, that was not attributable to the victim. Among cases, DNA positivity was detected in 20/136 (14.7%) with swab samples, in 54/68 (79.4%) with clothing submissions, and in 18/22 (81.8%) with crime-scene submissions. DNA positivity of the swabs was observed between 5 and 110 h post-incident, with the latest detection obtained from an internal anal (dry) swab. Bathing was associated with descriptively lower swab DNA detectability, whereas no statistically significant association was observed for clothing change. Although DNA detectability decreases with increasing PIT, biological evidence-particularly from anogenital samples-may persist beyond the commonly applied 72-hour window. DNA positivity was more frequently observed in external anogenital swabs (vulvar and perianal) than in internal swabs (vaginal and anal). This finding should be examined with an extended sample size. Y-STR analysis enhanced detection in low-template or autosomal-negative cases, supporting comprehensive evidence collection regardless of PIT or post-incident actions.
Legal labels such as genocide and crimes against humanity carry substantial legal and diplomatic weight in elite and institutional arenas, where classification shapes treaty obligations, ICC jurisdiction, and the perceived stakes of inaction. A common assumption in advocacy and policy discourse is that these labels also shape mass public judgment. Direct evidence is limited and ambiguous. We test this assumption in a preregistered, nationally representative survey experiment [Formula: see text] comparing four legally salient atrocity terms-genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing-against a nonlegal control across five real-world conflict contexts, measuring support for punitive and humanitarian policies as well as moral attributions of responsibility. Across outcomes, estimated label effects are small and rarely distinguishable from zero. Critically, even within a given partisan and country context, swapping legal labels produces smaller shifts than the baseline gaps across partisan and geopolitical contexts-indicating that where you stand and who you are matter far more than what word is used. Any departures from zero are narrow and do not accumulate into a consistent pattern across outcomes or conflicts. These results suggest that the political significance of atrocity labeling lies primarily in elite and institutional arenas; for mass publics, legal terminology is a weak lever compared to country context and partisan commitments.
Child maltreatment is a major public health concern worldwide and may worsen during crises, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Despite recurrent severe flooding in Brazil, evidence on disaster-related changes in police-recorded child maltreatment is limited. To evaluate the impact of the historic 2024 floods in Porto Alegre, Brazil, on official police-recorded child maltreatment crimes. All police-recorded child maltreatment cases involving individuals aged 0-17 years in Porto Alegre from January 2022 to December 2025 (7107 records). An ecological interrupted time-series analysis using quasi-Poisson regression was conducted to estimate immediate and gradual changes in reporting after the floods (May 1-June 30, 2024). Outcomes consisted of weekly counts of official police-recorded child maltreatment crimes. Subgroup analyses were performed by sex, age group, race/ethnicity, maltreatment type, and neighborhood flood severity. Police-recorded child maltreatment showed a significant upward secular trend over the study period (IRR per year = 1.0109; p < 0.001). At flood onset, weekly records dropped by 62.9% relative to the counterfactual expectation (IRR = 0.371; p < 0.001), followed by a significant recovery during the flood period (slope IRR = 1.180; p < 0.001). After floodwaters receded, no significant trend change was observed (p = 0.649). The immediate decline was larger among males, younger children, and physical abuse records. By neighborhood flood impact, severely affected areas showed a 39.6% reduction during the flood (RR = 0.604), moderately affected areas a 32.6% reduction (RR = 0.674), and less affected areas a non-significant 18.2% decline (RR = 0.817); all strata returned to near-baseline levels post-flood. The 2024 floods caused substantial, heterogeneous interruptions in police-recorded child maltreatment in Porto Alegre, with abrupt declines at onset, partial recovery during the flood, and post-flood stabilization. Strengthening administrative monitoring and protection structures is essential to maintaining child safety during climate-related emergencies. These findings reflect changes in formal police reporting rather than the true incidence of child maltreatment.
This study investigates Japan's national Social Return on Investment (SROI) of physical activity and sport (PAS) by adapting the pioneering UK model to reflect Japan's sociocultural and policy context. As this study is the first national-level SROI model for PAS in Asia, it addresses a key research gap and responds to calls for geographical diversification. The conservative base-case model quantified the social value of PAS by monetizing outcomes with stronger consensus evidence, including health improvements and subjective well-being, while accounting for sport-related injuries to avoid overclaiming. Education-related outcomes, less-established health outcomes, volunteer labor as an organizational human resource benefit, and crime-related outcomes were examined only as supplementary or reference scenarios because of methodological uncertainty, limited causal evidence, or potential double-counting concerns. Data were drawn from national surveys and official statistics focusing on the year 2022. We identified a total input of approximately ¥4.07 trillion (USD 31.3 billion) and a conservative base-case outcome value of approximately ¥11.87 trillion (USD 91.3 billion), after applying a 20% deadweight adjustment to positive outcomes, which resulted in an SROI ratio of 2.92. Furthermore, the sensitivity analysis revealed that the SROI ratio ranged from 2.55 to 3.28 under alternative deadweight assumptions, and from 2.67 to 3.15 under alternative WVA assumptions. A reference scenario including all excluded or reference outcomes except crime produced an SROI ratio of 2.98. This implies that for every dollar invested in PAS, a return of approximately three dollars in social value can be expected in the base-case model, with the overall conclusion remaining robust across tested scenarios. These findings underscore the importance of individual sport participation as a key driver of social value in Japan, where demographic challenges, such as aging and rising healthcare costs, persist. In particular, the concentration of health-related value among older adults highlights the policy relevance of PAS for healthy aging and healthcare cost containment in Japan. This research offers critical insights for policymakers seeking evidence-based justification for investment in PAS and contributes to the development of a globally harmonized yet context-sensitive framework for SROI modeling in public health and sport policy.
Bloodstains are among the most common forms of evidence at crime scenes and are considered one of the most critical types of physical evidence in forensic science. Accurately determining the age of bloodstains at a crime scene is crucial to solving cases. Traditionally, this determination relied on the expertise of forensic investigators or biochemical analysis methods, both of which often damaged the samples and increased investigation costs. This necessitated the development of a rapid, non-destructive, and accurate method for bloodstain age estimation. In the proposed method, bloodstains are applied to various substrates to minimize the influence of background interference on the experimental results. Spectral data are extracted non-destructively from the bloodstains and integrated with machine learning techniques to develop predictive models.The training model of blood aging was built using the Kernel Extreme Learning Machine (KELM) algorithm and the near-infrared (NIR) spectral data. It was also compared with the traditional Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS-R), Random Forest (RF) models and Back-propagation neural network (BP) models. The experimental results showed that the performance of KELM model was the best, test set with a determination coefficient (R2) of 0.94, which is higher compared to that of the PLS-R model (R2 = 0.75), RF model (R2 = 0.82) and BP model (R2 = 0.90). Besides, the root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of the KELM model was 2.54 days, smaller than the PLS-R model (RMSEP = 5.18 days) , the RF model (RMSEP = 4.29days) and the BP model (RMSEP = 3.68 days).The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of the validation set was 2.45% when using the KELM algorithm, which was also the minimum of the three algorithms, and it represented that the prediction results were the best. The experimental data showed that the method proposed in this study could accurately estimate the age of bloodstains, providing a new technology reference for bloodstain detection.
Stomach contents, such as vomit, are sometimes found at crime scenes and are typically used in forensic examinations. Previously, a simple method for identifying stomach contents using fibrin blue as a substrate was widely used; however, the sale of fibrin blue has been discontinued. Therefore, in this study, we investigated a simple method for testing pepsin activity under acidic conditions using skim milk or hide-remazol brilliant blue R, which are available as alternative substrates. Body fluids (nasal secretions, saliva, urine, semen, sweat, and blood), stomach contents, and feces were examined by adding them to wells or placing them on prepared skim milk or hide-remazol brilliant blue R agarose gel plates. The plates were incubated at 37 °C and observed hourly for 6 h. Dissolution spots were observed around stomach contents and semen, whereas no dissolution spots were observed with other body fluids or feces. By combining a seminal fluid test (colorimetric acid phosphatase or prostate-specific antigen assay), it was possible to distinguish between stomach contents and semen. In addition, similar results were obtained with skim milk agarose gel plates in stained and actual forensic samples, suggesting that the combined use of agarose gel and seminal fluid tests would be useful for screening stomach contents in forensic practice.
Traces (remnants of a past event under scrutiny) provide a great deal of useful information, however many aspects of selection and recovery need further exploration. The increased use of trace DNA has prompted extensive research into recovery rates of DNA profiles from various surfaces and collection methods. While recovery rates inform trace targeting, the utility of a profile reflects its actual contribution to an investigation. Utility is defined as the added value the use of a trace provides to an investigation, which if measured would increase knowledge for trace selection and analysis. This project analysed 47,097 data points relating to trace DNA samples3 collected during 2022 within New South Wales, Australia. Recovery rates of these exhibits were calculated for comparison. Further, a subset of 1206 data points were analysed to ascertain the utility or added value of the trace DNA profiles found, i.e. did the recovered profile add value to the investigation? Results showed that when considering recovery and the added value of an exhibit collectively, trace DNA profiles from steering wheels, weapons, motorcycle or bikes, paper or porous items and plastic items demonstrated comparatively high performance. Items with high recovery rates such as clothing were seen to not add comparatively as much value to investigations. It was noted, however, that when clothing profiles did add value, there was a higher percentage of identifications to persons not previously connected to the investigation (defined as cold links), when compared to other exhibit types. This project developed and tested an integrated approach that considers profile recovery rates, the utility of a profile and the investigative context of traces. Together, these provide a more holistic, context-sensitive view of trace DNA effectiveness, supporting an initial decision-support framework to assist crime-scene officers in trace selection.
Gender-responsive programming has emerged as a pivotal force behind improved therapeutic outcomes for women in the criminal justice system. Enhancing relevance of treatment provided to women sentenced for child sexual abuse (CSA) is necessary given the proposed gender-based pathways and motivations linked with this crime. This research incorporates the views of women sentenced for CSA (n = 18) and practitioners (n = 25) and aims to determine the key treatment targets for women sentenced for CSA, and how these might be similar or different to the needs of men sentenced for this offending. Results indicate that despite some overlap of treatment targets, there are gendered nuances in how some core topics should be addressed when delivering offense-specific correctional programming to women. Five key targets emerged that indicate notable differences warranting tailored intervention, including: the effects of past trauma, relationship toxicity, (un)healthy sexuality, lowered self-concepts, and parenting challenges. These nuances align with strengths-based and trauma-informed approaches advocated for this population, helping to guide future program development and implementation. Recommendations for practice are included.
As technology is rapidly changing, so are the ways that children are being groomed, abused, and exploited online. Children are being exposed to online pornography in unprecedented numbers, leading to multiple mental health, physical, and social consequences. Early exposure to pornography normalizes sexual violence and objectification and desensitizes children to sexually explicit content. While children are being desensitized to pornography, many children are also being asked to exploit themselves by sending sexually explicit photos and videos of themselves via social media, apps, and video games. The crime of exploitation escalates further when offenders offer items of monetary or nonmonetary value in exchange for sexually explicit photos and/or videos. This exchange meets the criteria of commercial sexual exploitation of children. Due to the normalization of sexually explicit content, children may not realize that they are being exploited in these situations. Clinicians need to understand the signs of exploitation because many pediatric victims encounter health care professionals during or after their abuse. It is also imperative for health care workers to understand how to ask trauma-informed screening questions and how to help patients and their families navigate next steps and resources when a child is being harmed and exploited online. This article discusses childhood exposure to pornography and how it normalizes self-exploitation, as well as the pivotal role that nurses play in providing education on these issues, screening for online harm, and providing trauma-informed resources.
Research on police violence (PV) narrowly defines it as physical force, disregarding its other forms, like psychological violence and neglect, and its co-occurrence with non-police victimization (NPV). This omission is important because of overlapping risk factors and potential compounding harm. Using the National Crime Victimization Survey and Police-Public Contact Survey, this study employs a more expansive definition that includes psychological and neglectful PV and assesses the overlap of these harms with NPV. Psychological PV was the most experienced form, and it was most prevalent among individuals who are male, younger, Black, city residents, and low-income. Any PV exposure, especially physical, was associated with a heightened NPV risk. While Black respondents had a higher likelihood of psychological PV than White individuals, its association with NPV was strongest for White respondents. Findings underscore the need to include PV in polyvictimization research and for alternatives to formal institutions that may perpetuate harm.
Drawing on a 2-year ethnography at the New York Zen Center for Contemplative Care (NYZCCC, 2020-2022), this article examines the growth of online Dharma groups developing amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. At meetings, contemplative practices (eg, meditation and mindfulness) are made amenable to secular expectations of mental healthcare. Treating these as social productions, rather than biomedical reproductions, of mind, I describe Buddhist Therapeutics as the process in which experiences of moral injury resulting from systemic inequity are collectively authenticated as aspects of mental health. This article illustrates how Dharma sharing activates its participants to confront the status quo, including matters related to the #MeToo movement, the murder of George Floyd, the #BlackLivesMatter movement and the rise of anti-Asian American hate crimes. Ultimately, I position Buddhist Therapeutics in a genealogy of injury and repair beginning with the division between mind and body in European philosophy.
Hyperspectral remote sensing/image spectroscopy (HRS/IS) has increasingly been utilized in forensic and humanitarian contexts, where spectral signatures aid in the location of human remains, identification of disturbed terrain, and detection of materials indicative of criminal activity. During forensic and humanitarian investigations, articles of clothing are essential pieces of evidence when employing HRS/IS techniques, as clothing remains the dominant material exposed to aerial, space-based, or unmanned monitoring systems. In this study, thirty-nine articles of clothing were collected from African migrants in temporary camps at known points of origin in North Africa and analyzed using an Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD) (PANalytical) FieldSpec 4 Hi-Res spectroradiometer and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The observed fabric types include cotton, polyester, elastane, and rayon, which varied in size, style, color, pattern, shape, and condition. Results show multiple distinct absorption features in the NIR and SWIR spectral ranges for endmember and blended fabric compositions, which can be easily distinguished through remote sensing techniques. Additionally, when affected by environmental debris, SEM analysis indicates the known amount of material found on a garment does not obscure reflective spectra. Results from this study show HRS/IS techniques are effective in lab-based settings with material evidence and enhance the suitability of in-field data collection, leading to the potential for remote crime scene investigation.
The aim of this study was to assess the associations of psychometric, biochemical, and genetic parameters of the serotonin and dopamine systems with violent criminal behavior. Male participants who had no criminal records (n=110) and those who had committed interpersonal violent crimes (n=143) were included in the study. Aggression levels were estimated by means of the Buss-Perry questionnaire (BPAQ-24). The Structure of Temperament Questionnaire-Compact (STQ-77), potentially linked to monoamine neurotransmitter activity, was administered to profile temperament traits. Concentrations of monoamine metabolites 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and homovanillic acid (HVA) were estimated in urine samples. The HTR2A rs6313 and DRD4 rs1800955 polymorphisms were genotyped by real-time PCR. Offenders demonstrated higher levels of aggression, and decreased concentrations of 5-HIAA and HVA as compared with controls. According to the final model of multivariate binary logistic regression, total BPAQ scores (B = 0.047; p < 0.001), HVA concentrations (B = -0.004; p < 0.001), and the STQ-77 Empathy (EMP) scale (B = 0.225; p = 0.004) were the independent markers discriminating violent criminal behavior with an overall classification accuracy of 86.1%. Thus, the complex interplay between heightened aggression, reduced HVA levels, and specific temperament traits constitutes a neurobehavioral signature of violent criminal behavior.
The detection of benzodiazepines in beverage residues is of crucial importance in forensic toxicology, particularly in investigations of drug-facilitated crimes. However, their determination in complex beverage matrices remains analytically challenging by severe matrix interferences and low analyte concentrations. In this study, a hybrid multispectroscopic-chemometric methodology was developed for determination of alprazolam (ALP) and lorazepam (LORA) following dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) pretreatment. The proposed approach integrates DLLME with UV-Vis, fluorescence and their derivative spectroscopies, combined with principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation-based data evaluation. Various beverage matrices, including wine, vodka, soft drinks, and sparkling water, were analyzed to assess the method's applicability under realistic forensic scenarios. DLLME significantly enhanced spectral quality and minimized matrix effects, improving the detection of both analytes in various beverages. UV-Vis derivative spectroscopy enhanced spectral resolution with analyte-dependent performance, while fluorescence spectroscopy provided complementary analytical information. Chemometric interpretation via principal component analysis (PCA) enabled effective differentiation between blank and spiked samples, confirming the robustness and reliability of the proposed analytical workflow. For both ALP and LORA cases, the first three principal components cumulatively captured over 80% of the total variance, indicating that they were statistically sufficient to adequately represent the dataset for further data analysis. Cluster validation using the elbow and silhouette methods consistently supported k = 2 as the optimal number of clusters for both cases. Overall, the combined DLLME-multispectroscopic-chemometric strategy offers a rapid, cost-effective, and accessible alternative to advanced instrumental techniques for the preliminary screening and differentiation of benzodiazepine residues in complex forensic beverage samples.
Chronic pain constitutes a multidimensional public health crisis. Environmental determinants may significantly influence pain experiences, yet the specific impact of perceived neighborhood walkability, infrastructure, and safety remains underexplored. We analyzed data from 31,568 U.S. adults in the 2020 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), utilizing Multiple Imputation by Chained Equations (MICE) to address missingness. To minimize conceptual overlap and Type I error, pain frequency was designated as the primary outcome, with pain intensity and functional interference as secondary outcomes. Exposures were operationalized as a composite Total Neighborhood Score (higher = more favorable) and three functional domains (Safety, Access, and Leisure). We employed survey-weighted proportional odds ordinal logistic regression to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). A Joint Domains Model was constructed to simultaneously analyze the three domains, with comprehensive covariate adjustment informed by a Directed Acyclic Graph. In fully adjusted models, a higher Total Neighborhood Score was significantly associated with lower cumulative odds of experiencing more frequent pain (aOR = 0.95, 95% CI: 0.94-0.97). When evaluated in the Joint Domains Model, safety domain demonstrated the strongest independent protective association against frequent pain (aOR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.80-0.89). Leisure domain also independently correlated with reduced pain frequency (aOR = 0.95, 95% CI: 0.91-1.00), whereas utilitarian access domain was attenuated after mutual adjustment. Consistent independent protective effects of safety and leisure were observed across all secondary outcomes. Perceived neighborhood safety and access to restorative leisure environments are independently associated with a reduced multidimensional burden of pain among U.S. adults. Integrating interdisciplinary urban planning strategies, such as traffic calming, crime reduction, and accessible green spaces, into public health initiatives may serve as essential non-pharmacologic interventions to mitigate chronic pain.
Exposure to early life adversity (ELA) increases risk of poor mental health outcomes, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In fact, ELA, especially in the form of "household ACEs" (e.g., socioeconomic disadvantage, incarceration of a caregiver), is among the most robust environmental predictors of a later ADHD diagnosis. Exposure to unpredictability is an understudied form of ELA that captures instability or inconsistency in routines, household experiences, and family relationships. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between unpredictability and ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents. Participants were drawn from two independent cohorts (Cohort 1: N = 99, Mage = 7.31 years [SD = 0.31]; Cohort 2: N = 217, Mage = 14.39 years [SD = 1.32]) participating in ongoing longitudinal studies of exposure to ELA. Unpredictability was measured by the Questionnaire of Unpredictability in Childhood, and ADHD symptoms were measured by the Child Behavior Checklist Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Problems subscale, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, and the Kiddie Schedules for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia ADHD Screener. Childhood experiences of unpredictability were associated with ADHD symptoms in both cohorts and during childhood and adolescence. Further, associations were stronger in females than males. These findings show that unpredictability is a risk factor for ADHD which suggests that it should be explored as an early target for intervention to reduce the development of ADHD symptoms.
Childhood maltreatment has been associated with increased risk of cognitive impairment in later life, but little is known about whether distinct joint trajectories of social isolation and depression across midlife predict this risk. Using a prospective cohort design with documented childhood maltreatment and matched controls (N = 1196) followed from ages 0 to 11 into late midlife, we modelled joint trajectories of social isolation and depression (ages 29-47) using group-based trajectory modelling (GBTM) and examined their associations with cognitive impairment with no dementia (CIND) at age 59 through modified Poisson regression, controlling for risk factors related to neurodegenerative outcomes (i.e., hypertension, diabetes, obesity, limited physical activity, hearing impairment, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption and traumatic brain injury). GBTM identified four groups: 'Not isolated or depressed' (67.7%), 'Moderately isolated' (11.7%), 'Moderately depressed' (16.5%) and 'Chronically isolated and depressed' (4.1%). Using the 'Not isolated or depressed' group as the reference category, membership in the highest-risk trajectory ('Chronically isolated and depressed') was associated with a 41.5% higher risk of CIND, whereas the 'Moderately isolated' and 'Moderately depressed' groups did not differ significantly from the reference group. Black non-Hispanic participants and those with documented childhood maltreatment histories had 32.8% and 21.2% higher risk of CIND, respectively, and each additional year of education was associated with a 4.9% reduction in CIND risk. Sustained co-occurring social isolation and depression from early to mid-adulthood predicted increased risk of CIND independent of established risk factors, highlighting prolonged social and emotional difficulties as modifiable targets for late midlife cognitive health.
Microaggressions are brief, everyday indignities directed at individuals based on their (perceived) membership in a marginalized social group. The concept highlights the microlevel dynamics of oppression and the everyday nature of social injustice. While research has documented their harmful effects - particularly in U.S. contexts - questions remain about how microaggressions are understood by the broader public, and how such understandings shape the concept's communicative value. This study examined public familiarity with and interpretations of microaggressions among a representative sample of Dutch citizens (n = 1,064; including 530 women, 530 men, and 4 respondents who self-identified differently; mean age = 48 years). Respondents completed an online questionnaire that combined closed- and open-ended items. They were asked whether they had heard of the term microaggression, to describe a personal or fictional example, and to rate and explain how harmful they considered such acts to be. Open-text answers were thematically analyzed for the nature and context of microaggressions, and for factors shaping harm judgments. Findings show that the concept was not widely known: 76.8% of respondents had never heard of it. Even after being presented with a definition, nearly a quarter (24.5%) did or could not provide an example. Analyzing the remaining 775 descriptions of microaggressions alongside evaluations of their harm, we found that microaggressions were often conceptualized as interpersonal insult regularly detached from structural oppression, with harm judgments focused primarily on individual impact. Hence, microaggressions are not yet a widely understood concept in the Dutch public sphere, which limits their capacity to articulate everyday manifestations of social injustice. For the framework to serve this function, its communicative function might require more accessible language, culturally relevant examples, and greater emphasis on both individual and structural dimensions of harm.
Allegations of spoiled food, medical neglect, and excessive use of force.