Conspiracy beliefs pose a societal challenge, yet the processes through which they emerge remain debated. One pathway to conspiracy beliefs that has received limited attention is the role of emotional responses to relative deprivation (RD). RD - the perception of being unfairly disadvantaged- elicits negative emotions such as anger and disgust, which may in turn foster conspiratorial interpretations. Across eight preregistered studies (N = 3,306), we experimentally induced direct, individual-level RD using a validated unfair-outcome paradigm and assessed anger, disgust, and (exploratorily) anxiety. All studies measured conspiracy mentality and specific conspiracy beliefs. We synthesized study-wise effects in a random-effects mini-meta-analysis. Experimentally induced RD reliably increased negative emotional responses (i.e., anger and disgust across all studies). Anger and disgust, but not anxiety were associated with both conspiracy mentality and specific conspiracy beliefs. Mini-meta-analytic mediation analyses showed consistent indirect effects of RD on both conspiracy outcomes through negative emotions. Total effects of RD on conspiracy beliefs, however, were very small and varied in direction across studies, underscoring the importance of emotional mechanisms. The findings indicate that direct experiences of RD may promote conspiracy beliefs indirectly through heightened anger and disgust. This work highlights results that are consistent with an important role of momentary emotional responses in the emergence of conspiracy beliefs and advances understanding of the affective mechanisms linking RD to conspiratorial thinking.
The aims of the present study were to (i) identify profiles of belief in conspiracy theories, and to (ii) test whether the obtained profiles differed in analytical (rational ability, rational engagement, Cognitive Reflection Test) and intuitive thinking (experiential ability, experiential engagement), and science denial (vaccine, climate science). In total, 451 participants (Mean age = 30.80, SD = 16.59, 61% female) were recruited from high-schools and social media groups. The participants completed questionnaires and performance tests of the study variables. The Latent Profile Analysis identified four distinct profiles that showed consistent and distinct response patterns over all five subscales of the Generic Conspiracy Belief Scale, with no overlap between the profiles, ranging from low (Profile 1) to strong conspiracy beliefs (Profile 4). Profile 1 was the largest class (38.14%), whilst Profile 4 was the smallest class (8.61%). The analyses further revealed that no differences were found between profiles in analytical thinking, measured by the performance-based cognitive reflection test. However, profile differences were found for self-reported analytical thinking, intuitive thinking, and science denial. Overall, less conspiracy beliefs were accompanied by less intuitive thinking and higher acceptance of climate and vaccine science. Somewhat unexpectedly, participants who held the strongest conspiracy beliefs (Profile 4) as well as those who had the lowest beliefs in conspiracy theories (Profile 1) reported higher levels of analytical thinking, compared with the other two profiles, suggesting that people who most strongly endorse conspiracy theories report high use of both analytical and intuitive thinking styles. A potential explanation may be that conspiracy beliefs initially originate through intuitive thinking, while analytical thinking can be used to maintain and justify these beliefs through, for instance, motivated reasoning.
Conspiracy mentality has been associated with various detrimental societal outcomes. However, research on its predictors and consequences has been focused almost exclusively on adults. Guided by Self-Determination Theory, this study examined reciprocal associations between basic psychological need frustration and conspiracy mentality among adolescents. A sample of 232 high school students (Mage = 14.6, SD = 1.53; 58% identifying as girls) completed surveys at two time points over a 1-year interval (Spring 2023 and 2024) in the province of Quebec, Canada. Results indicated that frustration of the need for relatedness predicted an increase in conspiracy mentality, whereas conspiracy mentality predicted an increase in relatedness frustration, with small effect sizes. Moreover, conspiracy mentality predicted an increase in frustration of the need for autonomy, with a small effect size. Given the negative implications of conspiracy beliefs, schools should implement strategies to address these beliefs and provide adolescents with opportunities to satisfy their needs for autonomy and relatedness.
Discussions about potential intervention targets, antecedents, and consequences of conspiracy beliefs often rely on comparing bivariate correlations, which can mask intricate patterns. Therefore, the present study adopts a multivariate network approach to gain nuanced insights into the relationships between personality variables and conspiracy mentality. Established and less-studied correlates of conspiracy mentality (i.e., bedtime procrastination, life satisfaction, locus of control, neuroticism, political cynicism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem) were examined together in network models at the aggregate score level and item level. Notably, network stability was examined across different samples before (N = 403) and during (N = 193) the COVID-19 pandemic. The main findings are: (a) the strength and sign of the relationships were often stable across bivariate and network analyses (e.g., positive relationships between political cynicism and conspiracy mentality), however, there were exceptions, such as an inconsistent link between life satisfaction and conspiracy mentality; (b) while many network relationships and centrality indices were similar before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, some noteworthy exceptions indicate that interventions targeting implausible conspiracy beliefs may benefit from tailoring to external circumstances; (c) certain influential network elements were identified that could inform future interventions (e.g., increasing politicians' transparency and accountability).
Research shows that spreading conspiracy theories impacts leaders' reputations; yet, it remains unclear how leaders are viewed when their theories are debunked. Across four studies (N = 1437), we explored whether conveying a conspiracy theory, regardless of its accuracy, influences followers' impressions of leader dominance, competence and warmth. Participants evaluated leaders who either incorrectly perceived (false-positive) or incorrectly misperceived (false-negative) a conspiracy about the cause of a simulated crisis. During intergroup conflict, false-positive leaders were seen as less warm, similarly competent, yet more dominant than false-negative leaders. The dominance gap grew when the consequences of overlooking a conspiracy were more severe. Conversely, in the absence of conflict, false-positive leaders were perceived as less warm and competent than false-negative leaders. These findings support an error management approach to conspiracy theories: Leaders who spread conspiracy theories, even if later debunked, are still perceived as strong leaders, particularly in conflict settings.
The importance of examining human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine-related conspiratorial thinking and its effects has become more prominent amid the global increase in anti-vaccine activism. However, little is known about how conspiratorial thinking shapes vaccine-related outcomes and how these processes vary across sociocultural contexts. Using survey data from China (N = 619) and the United States (N = 600), this study distinguishes between conspiracy orientation and conspiracy attribution in the context of the HPV vaccine. We propose a serial mediation model involving active communication behaviors (ACBs) that explain how conspiratorial thinking leads to vaccine-related outcomes. Results showed that conspiracy attribution and ACBs sequentially mediated the negative relationship between vaccine conspiracy orientation and HPV vaccination recommendation among Chinese active-vulnerable publics, whereas the opposite pattern emerged among their U.S. counterparts. These cross-national differences emphasize the contextual nature of communication behaviors when publics are engaged in a quasi-problem-solving process. The findings offer both theoretical insights into conspiratorial information processing and practical implications for developing more tailored counter-conspiracy communication strategies.
Conspiracy beliefs have long been a recurring feature of human society; however, when they target disadvantaged groups, such as the LGBTQ+ people, they represent a particularly harmful phenomenon with detrimental consequences. Despite the increasing interest in the phenomenon, research to date has often overlooked the influence of an individual social environment. Indeed, recent evidence highlighted that individuals who experience limited social integration might be more vulnerable to adopting a conspiratorial mentality. In this regard, social isolation may represent a possible trigger, fuelling epistemic uncertainty and existential anxiety, and enhancing susceptibility to anti-LGBTQ+ conspiracy beliefs. Hence, the current study (N = 820) investigated whether individuals who experience heightened levels of perceived social isolation are more likely to report high levels of anti-LGBTQ+ conspiracy beliefs endorsement via an enhanced conspiratorial mentality. Results were in line with our expectations, pointing out positive associations between perceived social isolation and conspiracy beliefs, both directly and indirectly, as a function of greater levels of conspiracy mentality. Therefore, an individual's social isolation may represent a promising approach to highlighting the factors that produce fertile ground for the endorsement of anti-LGBTQ+ conspiracy beliefs and may represent a promising aspect for identifying potential pathways for intervention and prevention.
Background/Objectives: To date, limited focus has been given to the possible contribution of attachment theory to the comprehension of how paranoia and conspiracy beliefs may develop. Our study aimed to examine the potential mediating effects of the different adult attachment styles on the relationship between childhood trauma and paranoid/conspiracy thinking. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study that was conducted during September-January 2025 among Tunisian young adults (aged 18-35 years) from the general population. The Child Abuse Self Report Scale (CASRS-12), the Relationship Questionnaire (RQ), the eight-item Green et al., Paranoid Thoughts Scale (GPTS-8), and the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale-5 (GCB-5) were administered to participants. Results: After controlling for potential confounders, analyses showed that secure attachment partially mediated the link between childhood trauma and paranoia (indirect effect: Beta = 0.001; Boot SE = 0.001) and conspiracy beliefs (indirect effect: Beta = 0.024; Boot SE = 0.01). On the other hand, preoccupied attachment acted as a significant mediator in the relationship between childhood trauma and paranoid thinking (indirect effect: Beta = 0.001; Boot SE = 0.001). In all these models, greater childhood trauma was directly related to higher paranoia and/or conspiracy thinking. Conclusions: Findings suggest that interventions and policies aimed at promoting a more secure attachment and addressing insecure attachment representations are likely to be effective in diminishing paranoia and conspiracy beliefs, especially for victims of childhood adversity.
Collective narcissism is known to fuel anti-scientific attitudes. However, its role in shaping conspiracy beliefs portraying those who use psychology to help others as manipulative or controlling remains largely unexplored. We argue that social class narcissism (i.e., exaggerated belief in the superiority of one's social group, along with sensitivity to criticism and hostility towards other groups) would foster psychological help conspiracy beliefs. Across three cross-sectional studies (N = 1863) among Polish and American participants, social class narcissism correlated with stronger psychological help conspiracy beliefs. In an experimental Study 2 (N = 1371), primed social class narcissism increased such beliefs. The last two studies further showed that social class narcissism was linked to negative attitudes towards psychological help via higher psychological help conspiracy beliefs (Studies 3-4) and lower mental health literacy (Study 4). Our findings highlight the importance of incorporating social identities into interventions targeting anti-scientific attitudes in psychology.
The global outbreak of mpox (formerly known as monkeypox) has drawn significant attention due to its unexpected spread beyond endemic regions, including countries in the Middle East. However, public knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions toward the disease in this region remain underexplored. This study aimed to assess knowledge, attitudes, levels of worry, conspiracy beliefs, and vaccine acceptance regarding mpox among adults in the Middle East. A cross-sectional survey was conducted using purposive and snowball sampling methods. A total of 318 participants aged 18 years and above were recruited from outpatient departments and through social media platforms. The survey instrument included three sections: sociodemographic characteristics; knowledge, attitudes, and worry about mpox; and conspiracy beliefs and vaccine acceptance. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 27, applying descriptive statistics, Chi-square tests, and Pearson correlation analysis. Nearly half of the participants (47.48%) demonstrated limited knowledge of mpox. Younger adults showed comparatively lower knowledge levels and higher levels of worry than older age groups. Overall, positive attitudes toward mpox prevention were more prevalent than negative attitudes. However, conspiracy beliefs were notably present, particularly among younger participants. Vaccine acceptance was moderate, with 77.36% of respondents expressing neutral to positive attitudes toward vaccination. The findings indicate a significant knowledge gap and the presence of misinformation, particularly among younger adults. The results highlight gaps in public knowledge, mixed attitudes, and moderate vaccine acceptance regarding mpox in the Middle East. The presence of conspiracy beliefs underscores the importance of targeted public health strategies to improve awareness and combat misinformation. Strengthening educational and awareness campaigns is essential to enhance preparedness and response to potential future outbreaks.
Conspiracy beliefs have been linked to perceptions of collective victimhood. We adopt an individual perspective on victimhood by investigating the relationship between conspiracy beliefs and the individual disposition to perceive and react to injustice as a victim, i.e., victim justice sensitivity (VJS). Data from two German samples (Ns = 370, 373) indicated a positive association between VJS and conspiracy mentality beyond conceptually related covariates (e.g., mistrust). In a multinational sample from 15 countries (N = 14,978), VJS was positively associated with both general and specific conspiracy beliefs (about vaccines and climate change) within countries, though these associations varied across countries. However, economic, sociopolitical and cultural country-level factors that might explain the cross-country variability (e.g., GDP, Human Freedom Index, individualism-collectivism), including indices of collective exposure to direct violence, did not moderate the studied associations. Future research should investigate the relationship between victimhood and conspiracy beliefs, considering both intraindividual and intergroup perspectives.
Given that the spread of false information online often outpaces efforts to address it, it is important to understand i) what content is the most important to remove to prevent false beliefs and ii) whether lay intuitions about content removal are aligned with these findings. In four experiments, participants viewed social media posts containing false evidence for novel conspiracy theories. In Experiment 1 (N = 300), removing posts containing plausible evidence significantly decreased participants'conspiracy belief, while removing posts containing implausible evidence did not. In Experiments 2a-2c (Ns = 350, 352, 351, respectively), we investigated new participants' moderation preferences for the same posts. Worryingly, participants chose to remove posts containing implausible evidence more often than posts containing plausible evidence (Exp. 2a-2b). And, even when oriented to the goal of reducing belief in the broader conspiracy theory, participants still removed both types of posts at similar rates (Exp. 2c). Our results suggest that relying on lay intuitions to guide content removal decisions may result in prioritizing the removal of content that does not substantively contribute to the spread of broader false beliefs over content that does. These findings have important implications for moderation efforts and highlight the need to look beyond belief in isolated claims when developing effective misinformation interventions.
Antisemitism and hostility toward Israel reliably co-occur, causing some to regard opposition to Israel as the "new antisemitism," a socially acceptable way to express an ancient prejudice. Others dismiss new antisemitism as a specious rhetorical tactic used to shame and silence earnest critics of Israel. Three preregistered studies addressed this issue. Study 1 (N = 373) found that Time 1 antisemitism predicted Time 2 anti-Israel attitudes via conspiracy beliefs about Israel and Zionists. We named this pattern the "Conspiracies Mediated Model of New Antisemitism." Study 2 (N = 243) cross-sectionally assessed the distinct mediational roles of anti-Israel conspiracies (Israel conspiring for itself), Zionist conspiracies (Jews conspiring for Israel), and Jewish-related conspiracies (Jews conspiring in ways unrelated to Israel). Conspiracies implicating Israel and Zionists again mediated the association between antisemitism and anti-Israel attitudes, but those related to Jews qua Jews did not. Study 3 (N = 493), using a three-time-point longitudinal design, showed that conspiracies related to Israel and Zionists, but not to Jews qua Jews, positively mediate the predictive relationship between antisemitism and anti-Israel beliefs. Across studies, the Conspiracies Mediated Model of New Antisemitism accounted for over 55% of the variance in anti-Israel attitudes-a substantial effect. Results were not due to a general conspiratorial mindset. Democrats, compared to Republicans, expressed less antisemitism but stronger anti-Israel attitudes and greater endorsement of anti-Israel and anti-Zionist conspiracies. These studies confirm that the relationship between antisemitism and anti-Israel hostility is reliable, predictive, and substantial, and that it is mediated by anti-Israel and anti-Zionist conspiracy beliefs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
Even though conspiracy beliefs have been linked to behaviours such as vaccination and voting, the association is weak and heterogeneous. To shed light on this matter, we examined belief qualities associated with stronger correlations of beliefs with attitudes and behaviour. Across three studies-the first being pre-registered, two utilizing large, probability US samples and the last measuring behaviour prospectively-we analysed associations with prejudice (Study 1 N = 1959), vaccination behaviour (Study 2 N = 2572) and political behaviour (Study 3 N = 1551; total N = 6082). We found consistent evidence that conspiracy beliefs are linked to attitudes, and attitudes are related to behaviours. As hypothesized, this pathway is stronger when the beliefs are perceived as more certain or important, a tendency that is amplified when they are also perceived as more actionable. These findings have implications for addressing the most dangerous conspiracy beliefs and for understanding the belief-behaviour associations in other domains.
This JAMA Forum discusses 3 conspiracy theories being amplified by the Secretary of the US Department of Health and Human Services and the consequences of policy changes on US health.
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Conspiracy beliefs are increasingly recognized as relevant to mental health, treatment adherence, and health-related behaviors, particularly among young adults. At the same time, patterns of spirituality in this group are shifting from institutional religiosity toward more individualized forms of spiritual practice. While spirituality is often considered a protective resource, less is known about how different forms of spirituality - religious, non-religious, and syncretic - are associated with conspiratorial thinking in young adults living in rapidly changing sociocultural contexts. We conducted a cross-sectional study among 1,100 young adults (aged 18-25 years) in Poland who were not undergoing psychiatric or psychological treatment. Based on self-declared worldview and engagement in Nonreligious Forms of Spiritual Practice (NFSP)-defined as spiritual practices pursued outside institutional religion-participants were classified into four groups: Catholics, Catholics engaging in NFSP (syncretic spirituality - Catholics Plus), atheists, and atheists engaging in NFSP - Atheists Plus. Spirituality was assessed using the Interfaith Spirituality Scale (ISS), and conspiratorial thinking with the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCBS). Group differences and within-group correlations between ISS domains and GCBS scores were analyzed using nonparametric methods. Participants engaging in NFSP-both religious and non-religious-displayed higher levels of conspiratorial thinking than their counterparts who did not engage in such practices. The highest GCBS scores were observed in the syncretic group (Catholics engaging in NFSP), followed by atheists engaging in NFSP, Catholics, and atheists. Among Catholics, higher spirituality-particularly in the domain of asceticism and moral self-regulation-was negatively associated with conspiratorial thinking. Among atheists, ascetic spirituality also showed a protective association, whereas domains reflecting intuitive or transcendent connection were positively related to selected conspiracy belief dimensions. In both NFSP groups, higher spirituality-especially in meditation- and experience-oriented domains-was consistently associated with stronger conspiratorial beliefs. The findings suggest that spirituality is not a homogeneous construct in relation to conspiratorial thinking. Institutionally embedded, norm-regulated spirituality may be associated with lower endorsement of conspiracy beliefs, whereas individualized, non-religious forms of spiritual practice appear to co-occur with higher susceptibility to conspiratorial narratives among Polish young adults. These relationships should be interpreted as associational rather than causal and highlight the importance of considering the form and epistemic orientation of spirituality in research on conspiracy beliefs.
COVID-19 vaccination plays a crucial role in reducing infection, hospitalization, and mortality. However, although the pandemic disproportionately affected racialized and Indigenous older adults, little is known about their attitudes and trust toward vaccines. This cross-sectional study examined COVID-19 vaccine mistrust and its associations with health literacy, conspiracy beliefs, and racial discrimination among racially diverse older Canadians. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted among racially diverse adults aged 55 years and older across Canada using Computer-Assisted Web Interviewing. COVID-19 vaccine mistrust was assessed as the dependent variable, while health literacy, conspiracy beliefs, racial discrimination, and sociodemographic characteristics were examined as independent variables. t-tests, ANOVA, and multivariable regression analyses were performed to examine associations between COVID-19 vaccine mistrust and the independent variables. The sample comprised 581 participants (11.5% Arab, 15.8% Asian, 16.2% Black, 9.0% Indigenous, 8.1% Mixed, 3.6% Other, and 35.8% White). COVID-19 vaccine mistrust varied significantly by race, with Black, Indigenous, Arab, and Asian participants reporting higher mistrust than White counterparts, F(6,574) = 7.14, p < 0.001. COVID-19 vaccine mistrust was greater among adults aged 55-64 (M = 10.5, 95%CI: 10.1-10.9) compared to those aged 65 and more (M = 8.7, 95%CI: 8.3-9.1). Regression analyses showed higher COVID-19 vaccine mistrust among Asian (β = 1.37, p < 0.001) and Black (β = 1.07, p = 0.003) participants. It was associated with lower vaccine confidence (β = -0.39, p < 0.001), and stronger conspiracy beliefs (β = 0.17, p < 0.001). This study reveals persistent racial and age disparities in COVID-19 vaccine mistrust among older Canadians. Beyond misinformation, mistrust reflects historical inequities and exclusion. Culturally grounded communication, improved health and media literacy, and trust-centered public health strategies are essential to strengthen vaccine confidence and promote equity in Canada's diverse aging population.
Extensive research has identified prevalent themes and persuasive tactics in anti-vaccination discussions, yet there is a need for systematic examination of how these themes differ and whether their levels of abstractness and concreteness vary in meaningful ways. Guided by construal level theory, this study analyzed Reddit discussions on COVID-19 vaccines to investigate construal level and evidence use across three anti-vaccination themes: conspiracy theories, adverse effects, and vaccine efficacy. Results revealed that conspiracy posts exhibited higher-level construal with greater use of narratives and lesser use of statistics, while efficacy and adverse-effects posts showed lower-level construal, relied more on statistics, and included fewer narratives. For engagement outcomes, a construal fit was observed for statistical evidence, with high-level construal content eliciting more comments and upvotes. By contrast, narrative evidence and content construal level produced a counter-fit pattern for upvoting, likely due to the uniqueness of conspiracy narratives in conveying abstract claims through storytelling. These findings extend construal level theory and provide theoretical guidance for tailoring messages to counter vaccine misinformation.
This study tests the dimensionality hypothesis, according to which diverse epistemically unfounded beliefs share a single underlying liability in addition to domain-specific components. We focus on conspiracy, paranormal, pseudoscientific, religious, and pseudo-profound ("bullshit") beliefs and examine whether their covariance structure is best captured by a common factor plus residual domain-specific factors. Using a nationally representative Russian sample (N = 1268), we modeled the five belief domains with competing confirmatory factor analysis models. We compared one-factor, correlated factors, higher order, and bifactor specifications, with the bifactor model prespecified as the focal test of the dimensionality hypothesis. We then related the general and domain-specific factors to cognitive and motivational antecedents. A prespecified bifactor solution, in which a general factor explained about half of the common variance while specific factors captured residual domain structure, provided the best fit. Conventional domain scores may systematically confound the general liability with domain-specific variance, potentially distorting cross-domain comparisons and inferences about domain-specific antecedents. Some cognitive and motivational antecedents emerged as central correlates of the general factor, whereas conspiracy, religious, pseudoscientific, paranormal, and pseudo-profound beliefs each showed distinct additional profiles. The findings support a dimensional view of epistemically unfounded beliefs anchored in a common cognitive-motivational architecture. We discuss the general factor as potentially reflecting an evolved predisposition favoring Type I errors (the "smoke detector principle") and archaic magical thinking, plausibly implemented at the proximate level in low-dimensional psychological "conceptual spaces" that align heterogeneous beliefs along a shared axis of receptivity to epistemically unfounded claims. Explicitly modeling this structure is crucial for valid measurement, comparison, and targeted intervention across epistemically unfounded belief domains, as opposed to relying on undifferentiated composite scores.