Yucca moths (Tegeticula spp.) are the exclusive pollinators of Joshua trees (Yucca brevifolia s. l.). The moths actively pollinate the Joshua tree flowers and lay their eggs in the style. Recent studies have revealed that the plants commonly known as Joshua trees include two distinct, sister-species of plant: Yucca brevifolia Engelm. and Yucca jaegeriana McKelvey, each pollinated by two sister-species of yucca moth Tegeticula synthetica Riley and Tegeticula antithetica Pellmyr, respectively. A number of studies have argued that the moths have coevolved with their hosts, producing a pattern of phenotype matching between moth ovipositor length and floral style length. However, the only known descriptions of yucca moth pollination and oviposition behavior on Joshua trees are observations of T. synthetica made in 1893. The behavior of T. antithetica has never been observed before. We produced the first video recordings of the behavior of T. antithetica, and measured the points of oviposition and egg placement within the floral style. We found a number of differences between the behaviors of T. antithetica and T. synthetica, which appear to be a consequence of differences in floral morphology between Y. jaegeriana and Y. brevifolia. We also found that variation in floral style length strongly influences the placement of eggs within the flower, which may explain patterns of phenotype matching described previously. However, unlike in other yucca moths, we find that the mode of oviposition is unlikely to wound the floral ovules, and thus that oviposition by T. antithetica is unlikely to prompt floral abscission.
Silpha obscura Linnaeus, 1758 (Coleoptera: Silphidae) is an omnivorous beetle species known for damaging agricultural crops, making it an important target for pest control strategies. Despite its impact, no studies have yet examined the anatomical and histological structures of the male digestive and reproductive tracts of S. obscura. Therefore, this study aimed to describe these structures in detail, which could provide insights into potential control methods. Twenty individuals were collected and histologically processed, with observations made using light microscopy. The digestive tract of S. obscura comprises 3 parts: a short foregut, a relatively long and wide midgut characterized by folds and numerous crypts of the blind intestine, and a narrow and elongated hindgut, which expands into the rectum. Malpighian tubules attach at the beginning of the hindgut, which continues with the ileum, colon, and rectum and ends at the anus. The male reproductive tract includes a pair of testes, a pair of efferent ducts (vas efferentia), a pair of deferent ducts (vas deferentia), a pair of seminal vesicles, 2 pairs of accessory glands, and the ductus ejaculatorius, which extends into the ejaculatorius bulbus. The reproductive tract terminates with the aedeagus. The testes consist of 2 lobes, each containing numerous follicles where spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis occur. This study provides detailed insights into the anatomy and histology of the digestive and male reproductive tracts of Silpha obscura. These findings may lead to new strategies for controlling this agricultural pest. Understanding these structures is crucial for further research.
Infection with endosymbionts can cause changes in the phenotype of their insect hosts, particularly for life-history traits such as fecundity and temperature sensitivity. Economically important pests such as aphids carry different species of endosymbiotic bacteria, some of which have potential as biocontrol agents. The impact of newly transinfected bacteria on behavioral responses of aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) has rarely been explored; however, traits such as microhabitat selection and response to predators could disrupt or reinforce the effectiveness of biocontrol. In this study we compared the behavior of green peach aphids, Myzus persicae (Sulzer, Hemiptera: Aphididae), with or without a transinfection of the facultative endosymbiont Candidatus Rickettsiella viridis (Legionellales: Coxiellaceae). In whole plants assays, we tested differences in microhabitat selection, leaf surface productivity and response to the predatory ladybird Hippodamia variegata (Goeze, Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). The transinfection affected the variance but not the mean of leaf surface preference, with the infected line aphids being more consistent across days. Aphid productivity did not differ between surfaces nor was it affected by the infection. Choice tests suggested that ladybird preference was not affected by Rickettsiella. However, the aphid lines responded differently to the predator in that the infected aphids were relatively more common on the adaxial surface in the presence of the predator whereas uninfected aphids showed no difference. Our results suggest that transinfected Rickettsiella endosymbionts can change their hosts' behavior in subtle ways but their immediate impacts on the effectiveness of predator-based biocontrol are not necessarily clear.
The pantropical Limacodid genus Parasa Moore [1860] comprises a charismatic group of moths, whose adults display green banding on the forewing while the larvae are often brightly colored, possessing stinging hairs. Three previously unidentified syntypes of the type species Parasa chloris (Herrich-Schäffer [1854]) were identified in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, USA, having passed through several collections over the past ca. 180 years. Described from specimens with a vague provenance, the true type locality was unveiled utilizing COI barcoding of the lectotype designated herein, together with other barcoded specimens from North and Central America, morphological observations in adults and male genitalia, as well as distribution records from museum specimens and the citizen science database iNaturalist. Results suggest the type locality of P. chloris as north-eastern USA, likely from the southern states. In addition, the nomenclatural history of P. chloris is here discussed in detail, and its synonyms are clarified with regard the morphologically-similar, sympatric species Parasa indetermina (Griffith and Pidgeon, 1832 nec Boisduval), and Limacodes viridus Reakirt (1864) syn. rev. is here revived as a synonym of the latter. Taxonomic remarks are also made regarding species closely related to P. chloris (Parasa minima (Schaus, 1892), Parasa huachuca Dyar (1905) stat. nov., Parasa cuernavaca Dyar (1907) stat. rev., and Parasa maysi Schaus (1920)), resulting from COI barcoding, and morphological examinations of all primary type and additional material. This research represents the first step in delimiting Parasa in preparation for future taxonomic work testing the monophyly of this widespread genus.
Information on the impacts of RNA viruses inhabiting insect hosts is scarce. Here, we studied the effects of a recently described RNA virus, Anagyrus vladimiri Reovirus, on its host, the parasitoid wasp Anagyrus vladimiri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), an important natural enemy of mealybug pest species. We found that Anagyrus vladimiri Reovirus is maternally transmitted with very high fidelity but not paternally. Additionally, Anagyrus vladimiri Reovirus is horizontally transferred at a frequency of 23% from infected to uninfected wasp larvae that develop together inside the same mealybug host (superparasitism). To test the effects of Anagyrus vladimiri Reovirus on A. vladimiri, the virus horizontal transmission was utilized to establish Anagyrus vladimiri Reovirus-infected (RV+) and uninfected (RV-) isogenic wasp lines, a method rarely applied and novel to RNA virus-parasitoid systems. Longevity, developmental time, sex ratio, and fecundity of RV+ and RV-  A. vladimiri were very similar. Nonetheless, the egg hatching rate of RV+ wasps was markedly and significantly higher than that of RV- wasps, especially in hosts that were not superparasitized. Additionally, significantly fewer encapsulation marks (the main form of mealybug immunity) were found around RV+ eggs inside parasitized mealybug hosts. Taken together, the data shows that Anagyrus vladimiri Reovirus may benefit A. vladimiri by counteracting the encapsulation immune response of the mealybug. However, why the numbers of offspring in both wasp lines are similar remains unclear. These findings present a rare example of interaction between an RNA virus and a parasitoid and may provide a tool for the improvement of biological control efforts.
The duration of the evolutionary association between a pathogen and vector can be inferred based on the strength of their mutualistic interactions. A well-adapted pathogen is likely to confer some benefit or, at a minimum, exhibit low pathogenicity toward its host vector. Coevolution of the two toward a mutually beneficial association appears to have occurred between the citrus greening disease pathogen, Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Las), and its insect vector, the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri (Kuwayama). To better understand the dynamics facilitating transmission, we evaluated the effects of Las infection on the fitness of its vector. Diaphorina citri harboring Las were more fecund than their uninfected counterparts; however, their nymphal development rate and adult survival were comparatively reduced. The finite rate of population increase and net reproductive rate were both greater among Las-infected D. citri as compared with uninfected counterparts, indicating that overall population fitness of infected psyllids was improved given the greater number of offspring produced. Previous reports of transovarial transmission, in conjunction with increased fecundity and population growth rates of Las-positive D. citri found in the current investigation, suggest a long evolutionary relationship between pathogen and vector. The survival of Las-infected adult D. citri was lower compared with uninfected D. citri, which suggests that there may be a fitness trade-off in response to Las infection. A beneficial effect of a plant pathogen on vector fitness may indicate that the pathogen developed a relationship with the insect before secondarily moving to plants.
Honey bees utilize their circadian rhythms to accurately predict the time of day. This ability allows foragers to remember the specific timing of food availability and its location for several days. Previous studies have provided strong evidence toward light/dark cycles being the primary Zeitgeber for honey bees. Work in our laboratory described large individual variation in the endogenous period length of honey bee foragers from the same colony and differences in the endogenous rhythms under different constant temperatures. In this study, we further this work by examining the temperature inside the honey bee colony. By placing temperature and light data loggers at different locations inside the colony we measured temperature at various locations within the colony. We observed significant oscillations of the temperature inside the hive, that show seasonal patterns. We then simulated the observed temperature oscillations in the laboratory and found that using the temperature cycle as a Zeitgeber, foragers present large individual differences in the phase of locomotor rhythms for temperature. Moreover, foragers successfully synchronize their locomotor rhythms to these simulated temperature cycles. Advancing the cycle by six hours, resulting in changes in the phase of activity in some foragers in the assay. The results are shown in this study highlight the importance of temperature as a potential Zeitgeber in the field. Future studies will examine the possible functional and evolutionary role of the observed phase differences of circadian rhythms.
The activities of social insect colonies are supported by exocrine glands and the tremendous functional diversity of the compounds that they secrete. Many social wasps in the subfamilies Vespinae and Polistinae have two sternal glands-the van der Vecht and Richards' glands-that vary in their features and function across the species in which they are found. Field observations suggest that giant hornets use secretions from the van der Vecht gland to chemically mark targeted nests when workers initiate group attacks on social insect prey. However, descriptions of giant hornets' sternal glands and details about their recruitment behavior are lacking. We describe the morphology of the sternal glands of the giant hornet Vespa soror du Buysson and consider their potential to contribute to a marking pheromone. We also assess the gastral rubbing behavior of workers as they attacked Apis cerana F. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colonies. V. soror workers have well-developed van der Vecht and Richards' glands on their terminal gastral sternites, with morphologies that robustly support the synthesis, storage, and dissemination of their secretory products. Observations confirm that the van der Vecht gland is exposed during gastral rubbing, but that the Richards' gland and glands associated with the sting apparatus may also contribute to a marking pheromone. Workers briefly but repeatedly rubbed their gasters around hive entrances and on overhead vegetation. Colonies were heavily marked over consecutive attacks. Our findings provide insight into the use of exocrine secretions by giant hornets as they recruit nestmates to prey colonies for group attacks.
The success of biological control of insect pests by parasitoids ultimately depends on effective host foraging by the agents, which involves multiple processes and various cues associated with hosts' habitat, host-associated symbionts and other microbial organisms, and/or hosts themselves. In general, parasitoid interactions with concealed hosts such as wood-boring beetles differ significantly from those that attack exposed hosts (eg surface-feeding caterpillars, aphids) as they must rely on a more complex hierarchy of cues to first locate hosts' microhabitats and then hosts for their reproduction. These differences influence the parasitoid's host-finding strategies, specificity, and their efficacy in suppressing their host populations. Here, we review the major steps in host finding by parasitoids of wood-boring beetles and synthesize current knowledge on the chemical, vibrational, visual, and other cues that mediate each stage of the process. We highlight how these cues operate across different spatial scales, interact with parasitoid morphology and behavior, and shape the success of biological control programs targeting economically important wood-boring pests. Finally, we identify key knowledges gaps and point to some future research directions aimed at improving the selection, deployment, and monitoring of parasitoid biological control agents in forest ecosystems.
Essential properties considered in the design, fabrication, and application of contemporary bio/nanomaterials have been modeled on adaptations of biological systems, one of which is the robustness of insect wings. Proto-odonate wing development in Meganeuridae began during the Carboniferous period; over 350 million years of wing evolution has selected for agility and long-distance flight capacity in dragonflies and damselflies, making them suitable model taxa for bio-inspired design related to flight. Dragonfly species vary in flight behavior, reflected by variation in wing stiffness and flexibility due to differential venation patterns, wing biochemistry, and wing shape and size. We analyzed 8 distinct characteristics of dragonfly wings that are related to wing durability and could serve as bio-designs for novel technical innovations: venation, nano-architectural surface, pterostigma, antiwetting properties, antimicrobial properties, antifatigue features, antiaging features, and sensory structures. Specifically, we examined a tropical African species of Libellulidae dragonfly, Aethriamanta rezia, using scanning electron microscopy and cuticular profiling, which revealed the presence of hydrocarbons responsible for these functions. Furthermore, we investigated the optical response of the wings within the UV-vis-NIR region. We discuss these wing features in the context of durability and environmental stresses.
Diplolepis ogawai Abe and Ide sp. nov. (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) induces galls on Rosa hirtula (Regel) Nakai (Rosales: Rosaceae), which is endemic to a restricted area of Honshu, the main island of Japan. The gall is induced mainly on the leaf of R. hirtula in spring and the mature gall falls to the ground in early summer. The gall-inducing wasp emerges from the gall on the ground in the following spring, suggesting that D. ogawai is univoltine. From spring to summer, the braconid Syntomernus flavus Samartsev and Ku and the eulophid Aprostocetus sp. are parasitic on the larva of D. ogawai in the gall, and the adult wasp of both parasitoid species emerges from the gall on the ground in summer. For S. flavus, this is the first distribution record in Japan and the first host record. Since R. hirtula is threatened with extinction by succession and deforestation, D. ogawai and its two parasitoid wasp species are considered to be at risk of coextinction with the threatened rose. In the event that the population size of this rose species is further reduced, D. ogawai and its parasitoids may -become extinct prior to the extinction of R. hirtula. To conserve these three wasp species associated with R. hirtula, protection of remnant vegetation where individuals of this threatened rose species grow is necessary.
Although two billion people already eat insects in the world and the benefits of edible insects are well known, these 'green' sources of protein are neither treated as conventional food products nor widely incorporated into Western diets. Using a school-based investigation surveying 161 children, aged 6-15, and 114 of their parents in London, and an online consumer survey with mainly British and French consumers (N = 1,020), this research provides insights into the potential of the insect market in the West. This work supports the idea that incorporating insect food into our diets makes not only environmental but also business sense. A nonnegligible segment of the population surveyed is willing to pay for mealworm minced meat and young children and pre-teens could represent a substantial market segment, as yet unexplored. This analysis points to multiple marketing strategies, such as early exposure, education, reducing the visibility of insect parts, celebrity endorsement, or peer-to-peer marketing, all of which could facilitate the adoption of insect food in the 'mainstream' arena, according to the consumer segment being targeted. Generalizations from these results are restricted to an educated and youthful subset of the potential consumer pool and further work remains to understand the patterns of Western consumer acceptance for the range of insect foods.
The assemblage of cavity nesting bees in a semi-arid post-wildfire pinyon-juniper woodland (2020 Pine Gulch Fire, Colorado, United States) was characterized and DNA metabarcoding was applied to identify composition of pollen provisions. Floral species composition of pollen provisions was compared to species composition of aerially applied seed mixes to evaluate which species were foraged upon by bees. Eight species of cavity nesting bees colonized nest traps in and around the fire perimeter; the mason bees Osmia montana Cresson, O. bruneri Cockerell, and O. californica Cresson were the most common. Bees overlapped in their use of floral resources and only 12 floral taxa were identified in pollen provisions, but the proportional composition of provisions diverged consistent with niche-partitioning. Bitterweed (Tetraneuris sp.) and 2 vetches (Hedysarum sp. and Astragalus sp.) were collected by most bee species. Although flowering forbs and shrubs constituted 16% of the aerial seed mix, only sunflower (Helianthus) was identified in both the applied seed mix and pollen provisions and represented only a small fraction (0.6%) of the seed mix. Vegetative cover was the most important factor for predicting the presence of Osmia nests; locations predominated by woody cover, especially Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii), were preferred nesting habitat. It is concluded that most forb and shrub species distributed in aerial seeding application were not used as forage by local cavity nesting bees. In this system, oak regeneration and key forage species (such as bitterweed and vetches) are relevant post-fire conservation targets that improve habitat value for certain pollinator taxa recolonizing burned sites.
Communities working in entomology, ecology, and other natural sciences are known for having shortfalls in racial and gender diversity. We aim to uncover drivers of this diversity gap. To achieve this, we distributed a survey to undergraduate students at large academic institutions in North America. The survey was designed to profile the perspectives people had about entomology, ecology, and agricultural science compared to other disciplines, and to see if these perspectives differed among demographics (race, gender, and sexual orientation). In addition to soliciting information about general perception relevant to recruitment and retention (approachability, hospitality/how welcoming a field is, fear, importance, interest, job availability), we also asked targeted questions about race-related issues (race motivated violence, racist authority figures, historical racism). In general, we found that race and sexual orientation did not often explain differences in perception of academic fields while gender did. Entomology was perceived the most negatively compared to all other disciplines, largely being driven by a high perception of fear, lack of knowledge about the importance of entomology, and the perception that jobs are lacking in the field. However, LGBTQ+ status predicted a significant increase in the perception of entomology as a "beautiful" science. Perception of race-related issues in ecology and biology differed by demographic, but the effect-size was small. We present several recommendations for higher education based on our results.
Heilipus lauri Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a specialist avocado seed feeder and a pest of economic importance in native (México) and invaded (Colombia) regions. Despite being a well-recognized pest of avocados, relatively little is known about factors affecting the developmental biology of weevil larvae infesting fruit. Laboratory studies investigated the effects of 4 pre-seed diets, 0, 1, and 3 d of feeding on avocado pulp, and consumption of conspecific first instar larvae on adult weevil fitness (ie size). Following these pre-seed diets, larvae were artificially inoculated into pre-weighed Hass avocado seeds. The effects of pre-seed diet and the size (ie weight) of inoculated seeds were analyzed for effects on the estimated mean amount of avocado seed consumed by larvae to complete development, mean time to complete development and emerge as adult weevils, and the mean weight (ie size) of adult male and female weevils. Pre-seed diet and seed size had no significant effects on seed consumption, development times, and size of adult weevils. Avocado seed size, which greatly exceeds amounts consumed to complete larval-to-adult development, may explain, in part, these observed outcomes, including purported fitness benefits that arise from consumption of conspecifics by herbivorous insects. This is the first study to confirm cannibalism by first instar H. lauri.
The Putnam scale, Diaspidiotus ancylus Putnam, 1878 (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Diaspididae), a species considered to be native to North America, has frequently been reported to be present in Chile and Argentina, attacking a wide variety of orchard crops (apples, pears, olives, nectarines, grapes) and common street trees (poplar, locust). However, diagnostic DNA sequences from Chilean populations identified as D. ancylus differ from those of North American D. ancylus; instead they are identical to those reported for Clavaspis patagonensis Schneider, Claps, Wei, Normark & Normark, 2020, a species previously known only from a single locality in Argentina. We have examined the Chilean and Argentine specimens identified as D. ancylus or Diaspidiotus sp. in major collections in Chile, France, Argentina, and United States, and we determine that nearly all of them belong to C. patagonensis and none belong to D. ancylus. Here we provide a redescription of C. patagonensis with a distribution map and a guide to distinguishing it from D. ancylus. Clavaspis patagonensis occurs throughout most of Chile, from Atacama to Aysén, and in at least 3 provinces in Argentina (Neuquen, Rio Negro, Entre Rios). Diaspidiotus ancylus apparently does not occur in Chile. We have examined specimens of C. patagonensis from 18 plant families. Field surveys of diaspidids in Chile indicate that C. patagonensis is one of the most common species of diaspidids in the country.
The study of social parasitism faces numerous challenges arising from the intricate and intranidal host-parasite interactions and the rarity of parasites compared to their free-living counterparts. As a result, our understanding of the ecology and evolution of most social parasites remains limited. Using whole-genome and reduced-representation sequence data, we conducted a study to fill knowledge gaps on host use, colony social structure, and population genetics of the facultative dulotic ant Formica aserva Forel. Our study reveals the remarkable ability of F. aserva to exploit at least 20 different host species across its wide geographic distribution. In some cases, one social parasite colony exploits multiple hosts simultaneously, suggesting a high degree of generalization even at a local spatial scale. Approximately 80% of the colonies were monogyne (with a single queen), with many exhibiting higher rates of polyandry compared to most Formica ants. Although we identified a supergene on chromosome 3, its association with colony structure remains uncertain due to the rarity of polygyny in our sample. Population genetic analyses reveal substantial geographic population structure, with the greatest divergence between California populations and those from the rest of the range. Mitochondrial population structure differs from structure inferred from the nuclear genome on a broad geographic scale, suggesting a possible role of adaptive introgression or genetic drift. This study provides valuable insights into the ecology and evolution of F. aserva, underscoring the need for further research to decipher the complexities of host interactions and the genetic mechanisms that regulate social structure.
We summarize field data on the species composition and seasonal phenology of the community of cerambycid beetles of east-central Illinois. Data were drawn from field bioassays conducted during 2009 - 2012 that tested attraction of adult beetles of diverse species to a variety of synthetic pheromones and host plant volatiles. A total of 34,086 beetles of 114 species were captured, including 48 species in the subfamily Cerambycinae, 41 species in the Lamiinae, 19 species in the Lepturinae, two species in the Spondylidinae, and one species each in the Necydalinae, Parandrinae, Prioninae, and the Disteniidae. Most of the best-represented species were attracted to pheromones that were included in field experiments, particularly species that use (R)-3-hydroxyhexan-2-one as a pheromone component. The species captured, and their patterns of abundance and seasonal phenology were similar to those in an earlier study conducted in Pennsylvania. The most abundant species identified in both studies included the cerambycines Elaphidion mucronatum (Say), Neoclytus a. acuminatus (F.), Neoclytus m. mucronatus (F.), and Xylotrechus colonus (F.). Cerambycine species became active in an orderly progression from early spring through late fall, whereas most lamiine species were active in summer and fall, and lepturine species were limited to summer. Potential cross attraction between some cerambycine species that shared pheromone components may have been averted by differences in seasonal activity period, and by minor pheromone components that acted as synergists for conspecifics and/or antagonists for heterospecifics. These results provide quantitative data on the abundance and seasonal phenology of a large number of species.
Targeting the distribution of germ-cell markers is a widely used strategy for investigating germline development in animals. Among these markers, the vasa (vas) orthologues, which encode ATP-dependent RNA helicases, are highly conserved. Previous studies have examined asexual (parthenogenetic) and viviparous embryos of the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum using a cross-reacting Vas antibody. This study utilized a specific antibody against Ap-Vas1, a Vas orthologue in the pea aphid, to gain new insights into germline development. The Ap-Vas1-specific antibody facilitates earlier detection of germ-plasm assembly at the oocyte posterior, challenging the previous assumption that germ-plasm assembly begins only at the onset of embryogenesis. Treatment of oocytes and early embryos with cytoskeleton inhibitors suggests that germ-plasm assembly primarily depends on actin, in contrast to the fly Drosophila melanogaster, where both actin and microtubules are essential. Since pea aphids lack an orthologue of osk, which encodes the protein Osk responsible for anchoring Vas to the germ plasm in Drosophila, this suggests that pea aphids employ distinct mechanisms for osk- and microtubule-independent formation of the germ plasm. Moreover, the clustering of germ cells into germarium-like structures in the extraembryonic region before entering the embryos suggests a gonad formation process different from that in Drosophila, where germ cells begin to cluster into germaria after settling within the embryonic gonads. Therefore, the analysis of the Ap-Vas1 distribution provides a deeper understanding of germline development in asexual pea aphids, uncovering novel aspects of parthenogenetic and viviparous reproduction in insects.
Pseudacysta perseae (Heidemann 1908) (Hemiptera: Tingidae) is a foliar pest of avocados. The effects of 6 fluctuating temperature regimens, which averaged 15, 20, 25, 30, 32, and 35 °C over a 24-h period, on the developmental and reproductive biology of P. perseae were investigated. Selected temperature cycles are representative of avocado production regions in California (US). Fluctuating temperature regimens had significant effects on P. perseae development times, fecundity, fertility, longevity, and survivorship rates. One linear model (Ordinary Linear) and 7 nonlinear regression functions (Beta, Brière-2, Lactin-2, Lobry-Rosso-Flandrois, Performance-2, Ratkowsky, and Weibull) were utilized to investigate the correlation between fluctuating temperature profiles and P. perseae development times. The Beta and Weibull models failed to converge. Model parameters, T min, T opt, and T max, were estimated as 1.72 to 9.78 °C, 31.04 to 31.57 °C, and 34.05 to 39.38 °C, respectively. The thermal requirement for development, K, was estimated as 476.19 degree-days. At 32 °C, P. perseae females exhibited 4 egg-laying peaks around days 11, 35, 54, and 63 of life. A maximum daily average of eggs laid (i.e., fecundity) was 6.07 on day 35 and the average daily egg-laying rate was 3.08 eggs over a 69-day span. The maximum proportion of eggs that hatched (i.e., fertility) was 0.49 on day 31, and the average daily proportion of hatched eggs was 0.10. This study confirmed that P. perseae passes through 4 nymphal instars, not 5 as previously reported. In addition, sexual dimorphism with respect to the coloration of the fourth antennal segment is documented and is substantially darker in adult males.