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Timely and comprehensive analyses of causes of death stratified by age, sex, and location are essential for shaping effective health policies aimed at reducing global mortality. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2023 provides cause-specific mortality estimates measured in counts, rates, and years of life lost (YLLs). GBD 2023 aimed to enhance our understanding of the relationship between age and cause of death by quantifying the probability of dying before age 70 years (70q0) and the mean age at death by cause and sex. This study enables comparisons of the impact of causes of death over time, offering a deeper understanding of how these causes affect global populations. GBD 2023 produced estimates for 292 causes of death disaggregated by age-sex-location-year in 204 countries and territories and 660 subnational locations for each year from 1990 until 2023. We used a modelling tool developed for GBD, the Cause of Death Ensemble model (CODEm), to estimate cause-specific death rates for most causes. We computed YLLs as the product of the number of deaths for each cause-age-sex-location-year and the standard life expectancy at each age. Probability of death was calculated as the chance of dying from a given cause in a specific age period, for a specific population. Mean age at death was calculated by first assigning the midpoint age of each age group for every death, followed by computing the mean of all midpoint ages across all deaths attributed to a given cause. We used GBD death estimates to calculate the observed mean age at death and to model the expected mean age across causes, sexes, years, and locations. The expected mean age reflects the expected mean age at death for individuals within a population, based on global mortality rates and the population's age structure. Comparatively, the observed mean age represents the actual mean age at death, influenced by all factors unique to a location-specific population, including its age structure. As part of the modelling process, uncertainty intervals (UIs) were generated using the 2·5th and 97·5th percentiles from a 250-draw distribution for each metric. Findings are reported as counts and age-standardised rates. Methodological improvements for cause-of-death estimates in GBD 2023 include a correction for the misclassification of deaths due to COVID-19, updates to the method used to estimate COVID-19, and updates to the CODEm modelling framework. This analysis used 55 761 data sources, including vital registration and verbal autopsy data as well as data from surveys, censuses, surveillance systems, and cancer registries, among others. For GBD 2023, there were 312 new country-years of vital registration cause-of-death data, 3 country-years of surveillance data, 51 country-years of verbal autopsy data, and 144 country-years of other data types that were added to those used in previous GBD rounds. The initial years of the COVID-19 pandemic caused shifts in long-standing rankings of the leading causes of global deaths: it ranked as the number one age-standardised cause of death at Level 3 of the GBD cause classification hierarchy in 2021. By 2023, COVID-19 dropped to the 20th place among the leading global causes, returning the rankings of the leading two causes to those typical across the time series (ie, ischaemic heart disease and stroke). While ischaemic heart disease and stroke persist as leading causes of death, there has been progress in reducing their age-standardised mortality rates globally. Four other leading causes have also shown large declines in global age-standardised mortality rates across the study period: diarrhoeal diseases, tuberculosis, stomach cancer, and measles. Other causes of death showed disparate patterns between sexes, notably for deaths from conflict and terrorism in some locations. A large reduction in age-standardised rates of YLLs occurred for neonatal disorders. Despite this, neonatal disorders remained the leading cause of global YLLs over the period studied, except in 2021, when COVID-19 was temporarily the leading cause. Compared to 1990, there has been a considerable reduction in total YLLs in many vaccine-preventable diseases, most notably diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, and measles. In addition, this study quantified the mean age at death for all-cause mortality and cause-specific mortality and found noticeable variation by sex and location. The global all-cause mean age at death increased from 46·8 years (95% UI 46·6-47·0) in 1990 to 63·4 years (63·1-63·7) in 2023. For males, mean age increased from 45·4 years (45·1-45·7) to 61·2 years (60·7-61·6), and for females it increased from 48·5 years (48·1-48·8) to 65·9 years (65·5-66·3), from 1990 to 2023. The highest all-cause mean age at death in 2023 was found in the high-income super-region, where the mean age for females reached 80·9 years (80·9-81·0) and for males 74·8 years (74·8-74·9). By comparison, the lowest all-cause mean age at death occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, where it was 38·0 years (37·5-38·4) for females and 35·6 years (35·2-35·9) for males in 2023. Lastly, our study found that all-cause 70q0 decreased across each GBD super-region and region from 2000 to 2023, although with large variability between them. For females, we found that 70q0 notably increased from drug use disorders and conflict and terrorism. Leading causes that increased 70q0 for males also included drug use disorders, as well as diabetes. In sub-Saharan Africa, there was an increase in 70q0 for many non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Additionally, the mean age at death from NCDs was lower than the expected mean age at death for this super-region. By comparison, there was an increase in 70q0 for drug use disorders in the high-income super-region, which also had an observed mean age at death lower than the expected value. We examined global mortality patterns over the past three decades, highlighting-with enhanced estimation methods-the impacts of major events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, in addition to broader trends such as increasing NCDs in low-income regions that reflect ongoing shifts in the global epidemiological transition. This study also delves into premature mortality patterns, exploring the interplay between age and causes of death and deepening our understanding of where targeted resources could be applied to further reduce preventable sources of mortality. We provide essential insights into global and regional health disparities, identifying locations in need of targeted interventions to address both communicable and non-communicable diseases. There is an ever-present need for strengthened health-care systems that are resilient to future pandemics and the shifting burden of disease, particularly among ageing populations in regions with high mortality rates. Robust estimates of causes of death are increasingly essential to inform health priorities and guide efforts toward achieving global health equity. The need for global collaboration to reduce preventable mortality is more important than ever, as shifting burdens of disease are affecting all nations, albeit at different paces and scales. Gates Foundation.
The involvement of C-reactive proteins in triggering antibiotic release is important in figuring out the underlaying mechanisms of cellular biomarkers involving the immune reaction and inflammation. Thus, the existence of microbial C-reactive proteins or peptides are getting logical acceptance due to the presence of some homologue peptides into microbes capable in triggering same inflammatory response levels like to that happening into mammalian cells. The objective of this chapter is to study in depth the mechanization of microbial C-reactive proteins/peptides for allowing the release of de novo antibiotics capable in competing the penicillin mechanism of action. Therefore, series of plasmo-dynamic markers are beared in mind and studied including the role of anti-inflammatory peptides, peptide transporters, opioid peptides, cell penetrating peptides and other static membrane markers including Toll-like receptor, and G-protein coupled receptors. These cellular biomarkers are studied in light of their mechanizations toward the release of commonly known classes of antibiotics including antiviral, antifungal, and antimicrobial ones. The chapter is also covering the availability of antibiotics in foods, microbes, biological matrices and in animal cells and tissues as well as the methods of detection and quantification of antibiotics and also the commonly methods used in mitigating those antibiotics when they are present in excessive doses in food materials. In this regard, some engineered models have been developed in order to remove residual traces of antibiotics as mode for food safety purposes. The domain applications of antibiotics as putative cores and therapies used for preventing the burden diseases like Covid-19 pandemia and other complicated transient diseases are also covered. The chapter is shedding light on the mechanization of peptides like antibiotics, microbial resistance against antibiotics, mechanism of antibiotic sensing, peptides-antibiotic interaction, and antibiotic resistance, by projecting lights on some developed biosensors used in detecting these type of substances.
Extrusion processing stands out as a versatile and efficient technology for producing a wide range of food products, including snacks, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, meat analogues, and pasta. However, most conventional extruded products rely heavily on refined cereals, resulting in formulations that are high in rapidly digestible carbohydrates but low in protein, dietary fiber, and essential micronutrients-raising concerns about their nutritional adequacy and long-term health impacts. In parallel, growing global emphasis on environmental sustainability is driving the food industry to seek new approaches that not only reduce resource consumption and waste but also align production practices with greener, more responsible standards. In response to these challenges, recent innovations in extrusion research have focused on redesigning product formulations and processing techniques to enhance nutritional quality, promote healthier dietary patterns, and improve environmental sustainability. These efforts include incorporating nutrient-dense, upcycled, and underutilized ingredients such as plant protein isolates, oilseed meals, fruit and vegetable pomaces, algae, and insect powders. Meanwhile, technological advancements such as raw material enzymatic treatments, novel extruder die designs and blowing agent-assisted extrusion are being explored to enhance nutritional quality and promote sustainability while preserving desirable sensory attributes. Despite significant progress at the research level, challenges remain in balancing nutrition, sensory appeal, and consumer acceptability, as well as in navigating regulatory frameworks and achieving industrial scalability. This chapter summarizes the ongoing developments and future directions in ingredient and process innovations for cereal-based extruded foods, highlighting the potential of these innovations to address global health concerns and advance sustainability goals.
Milk, meat, and eggs are essential components of human diets, providing high-quality nutrients such as protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. The nutritional quality, safety, and shelf life of these animal-derived foods are strongly influenced by livestock production systems and feeding strategies. This chapter examines how different production models, including extensive grazing and intensive feeding systems, and emerging sustainable approaches such as agroecological, regenerative, and circular agriculture shape the nutrient composition, quality and safety of animal products. Global feeding strategies used in animal production are discussed, with emphasis on green forage versus hay and grain feeding in sheep, silage versus total mixed ration systems in dairy cattle, and cut-and-carry feeding compared with crop residues, grains, and agro-industrial by-products in goats. The chapter highlights the impact of these practices on the nutritional composition of milk, meat, and eggs, including fatty acid profiles, protein quality, micronutrients, carotenoids, antioxidants, and other bioactive compounds. Key food safety concerns associated with production systems and feeds, such as pathogen contamination, mycotoxins, chemical residues, and microbiological hazards, are addressed. In addition, shelf-life and preservative aspects are explored, focusing on lipid oxidation, spoilage microbiota, feed-based biofortification, natural preservatives, packaging interactions, and post-harvest handling.
Pectins are a family of plant polysaccharides with complex structures whose significance extends beyond their established function as food texture modifiers. These compounds are directly relevant to human health, and their impact is influenced by structural diversity. The chemical composition of pectins varies according to botanical origin and is shaped by extraction and modification processes. Such structural differences determine both technological functionality and a range of bioactive properties, establishing pectins as potent dietary fibers with systemic health effects. Modified pectins exhibit immunomodulatory and anticancer activities through mechanisms including receptor interactions and modulation of key signaling pathways. In vivo studies further demonstrate their roles in regulating metabolism and in supporting gut barrier integrity. A critical aspect of pectin bioactivity involves promoting symbiotic interactions within the gut microbiota, increasing microbial diversity, and stimulating the production of beneficial metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids. Translational research, including clinical trials, has confirmed practical benefits for gastrointestinal management and metabolic health, and has highlighted the utility of pectins as adjuvants in pharmaceutical and nutritional formulations. This chapter highlights the link between pectins and the intersection of food science, nutrition, and biomedicine, emphasizing their potential as multifunctional ingredients for innovative health strategies.
Nanoformulations have emerged as a transformative innovation within the food industry, offering a broad spectrum of applications that contribute to both product quality and safety. Also referred to as delivery systems, nanoformulations are increasingly employed to encapsulate a variety of bioactive compounds, including flavors, essential nutrients, antioxidants, and antimicrobial agents. By leveraging nanotechnology, these systems significantly improve the solubility, bioavailability, and controlled release of functional ingredients. As a result, they facilitate more effective nutrient delivery, enhanced sensory properties, and prolonged stability of food products. One of the key advantages of nanoformulations lies in their ability to protect sensitive compounds from degradation during processing, storage, and digestion. This protective function not only improves the nutritional value of food but also extends its shelf life by mitigating oxidative and microbial spoilage. Moreover, nanoencapsulation techniques enable the targeted release of active substances under specific environmental conditions, thereby maximizing their functional benefits while minimizing waste. Beyond their role in enhancing food quality, nanotechnology also contributes to food safety and quality control. Advanced nanosensors are being developed and incorporated into food monitoring systems to enable the rapid detection of harmful bacteria, toxins, and other contaminants. These sensors offer real-time analysis and early warning capabilities, which are crucial for preventing foodborne illnesses and ensuring compliance with safety regulations. Despite the promising potential of nanoformulations, their widespread adoption in the food industry requires careful consideration of safety, regulatory, and ethical concerns. Ongoing research is focused on evaluating the toxicological implications of nanoparticles and establishing standardized guidelines for their use. This chapter explores the multifaceted applications of nanoformulations in food systems and provides an overview of current developments and future directions. Emphasis is placed on the need for sustainable and responsible implementation strategies that align with consumer expectations and global food safety standards.
The shift towards sustainable diets has increased interest in plant-based proteins and meat alternatives. The quality of protein depends on the content and digestibility of indispensable amino acids, which are shaped by molecular structure, food matrix interactions and processing. These factors influence amino acid bioavailability, digestion rates and metabolic outcomes. This work provides an overview of protein digestion, highlighting the influence of amino acid sequence, folding, β-sheet prevalence, disulfide crosslinking, aggregation and interactions with anti-nutritional factors on enzymatic accessibility and hydrolysis. Particular attention is given to plant-derived proteins and meat analogues, the digestibility of which is often modulated by intrinsic structural characteristics and complex matrix effects. Food processing has a dual effect, as mild treatments enhance proteolysis through unfolding and improved solubility, whereas harsh treatments cause aggregation, cross-linking, racemization and modifications that hinder enzyme access. This chapter covers in vitro digestion models, including the standardized static INFOGEST model, as well as semi-dynamic, and dynamic models. It details their uses, advantages and disadvantages for evaluating protein digestibility and nutritional value. Advanced tools such as high-resolution mass spectrometry and peptidomics help to characterized digestion products and offer a better understanding of how hydrolysis influences functionality and safety implications. The chapter also addresses protein quality metrics such as Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score, the challenges associated with them, and the need for a comprehensive framework to assess the nutritional and health impacts of alternative and novel plant proteins.
The shift toward plant- and fungal proteins is driven by environmental and public-health concerns, but wider adoption is constrained by poor sensory quality, limited techno-functionality, and variable nutritional performance. Fermentation has re-emerged as a versatile processing approach because it can improve flavor and texture while remaining compatible with clean-label food design. Yet the effects of fermentation designed for alternative proteins on host physiology remain largely unexplored. This chapter examines how fermentation modifies plant- and fungal-protein foods at multiple levels and how these changes may translate into health-relevant outcomes. After outlining the major chemical and physical transformations induced by fermentation, the chapter moves beyond the traditional focus on nutrients and bioactive metabolites to consider how fermentation-driven changes in flavor and food structure influence gastrointestinal signaling and digestion. Particular attention is given to how in situ production of exopolysaccharides (EPS) during fermentation reshapes matrix organization and governs the delivery of food components along the gastrointestinal tract, where they can be utilized by the host or serve as substrates for gut microbes in complex trophic chains. Accordingly, the gut microbiome provides a key interface for these processes by integrating both chemical and physical cues from foods after ingestion, while also mediating how these cues translate into physiological responses, thereby serving as a composite readout of food properties and host physiology. By highlighting what is known and where evidence is emerging, this chapter aims to support the future rational design of fermented plant- and fungal-protein foods for both product performance and health.
Fermented plant foods are dietary staples in many societies. In Asia and Africa, fermented plant foods are also a major source of dietary protein, while (fermented) dairy products and meat are major protein sources in high-income countries. An increased consumption of plant protein at the expense of animal protein is recommended to increase the sustainability of agri-food production systems as well as the health of consumers. This chapter presents current knowledge on the role of fermented plant foods in the production of sustainable, secure, safe and health-sustaining foods. Emphasis is placed on life cycle assessments to inform whether fermented plant foods provide sustainable and health beneficial alternatives to meat and dairy products. Results document that prioritising plant-based products over animal products is a solution to improve the sustainability of our food system. However, the reliance on purified plant-based ingredients such as purified protein, starches, and fats that are used in formulated products abolishes the benefits of plant-based products, both from a health and environmental standpoints. Choosing whole plant foods with minimal addition of refined ingredients and additives is the best solution to reduce the environmental footprint of food production and to attain health benefits. Fermentation is a key tool to help with reducing the need for processed ingredients and additives. Most importantly, fermentation presents the unique ability to moderate off-flavours and bitterness associated with plant material and turn it into a more appealing and palatable product. Altogether, whole fermented plant foods are an alternative that benefits both the consumers and the environment which is key for implementing changes with real impact.
Cereals and cereal-based foods are fundamental to global nutrition, providing essential macronutrients and micronutrients that support food security. Ensuring their quality, nutrition, and safety is impacted by factors such as contamination, adulteration, and nutrient degradation during processing and storage. Advanced analytical techniques have emerged as powerful tools to address these challenges, offering innovative solutions for detecting contaminants, optimizing nutritional value, and ensuring food safety. This chapter explores the application of these techniques, including spectroscopy, chromatography, molecular biology, and omics technologies, in the cereal-based food systems. Spectroscopy and chromatography enable rapid and precise detection of chemical contaminants and adulterants, while molecular biology methods like PCR and DNA barcoding ensure product authenticity. Omics approaches, such as lipidomics, proteomics, and flavoromics, provide comprehensive insights into the molecular composition and functional properties of cereals, facilitating the development of high-quality, nutritious products. Emerging technologies, including nanotechnology and artificial intelligence, further enhance the efficiency and accuracy of cereal safety monitoring. By integrating these advanced methods, the cereal research field can address existing challenges, ensuring the production of safe, high-quality, and nutritious cereal-based foods to meet global dietary needs.
Wine is an important global alcoholic beverage produced in many regions, in a wide array of styles, and from different grape varieties. Quality is an important concept for wine production, but that depends on the viewpoint (e.g., winemaker, novice consumer, expert), making it challenging to simply define the quality of wine and the grapes from which it originates. Based on extensive research, however, some consensus on the definition of quality is available, which helps underpin how to measure, evaluate, and control grape and wine quality using chemical and sensory methods. Recently, with the growing demand for simple, rapid, and cost-effective techniques to objectively evaluate the quality of grape, wine, and wine-derived spirits in the wine industry, novel spectroscopic technologies, used in conjunction with chemometrics, have been developed and implemented. Among these, fluorescence spectroscopy has shown advantages as an analytical tool in a number of aspects of grape and wine research and winemaking practice. This chapter provides an overview of the definition of grape and wine quality from different perspectives and summarizes commonly used methods for measurement, evaluation, and control of grape and wine quality after providing an understanding of the chemical components of importance. Finally, the chapter provides an update on the current progress of research and application of fluorescence spectroscopy combined with chemometrics and machine learning devoted to grape and wine analysis, including phenolic detection and prediction, grape maturity monitoring, wine classification, and authentication, among others.
Cooking is a thermal process applied to food to make it edible, increasing its flavor, inactivating microorganisms and enzymes, extending its shelf life, and ensuring food safety. Heating temperature and duration cause changes in the food's physical, chemical, sensory, and nutritional properties. Today, traditional cooking methods such as pan frying, oven baking, boiling, microwaving, and grilling are commonly used for fish. However, these methods do not fully meet consumers' expectations because they cause a decrease in nutritional value and flavor quality. Consumers' desire for more delicious, healthier, and more nutritious foods that do not contain preservatives has led researchers to alternative processing techniques. In recent years, the sous vide cooking technique, defined as cooking under vacuum, has been used as a new method to minimize the undesirable effects of traditional methods. The sous vide technique involves cooking vacuum-packaged products in a water bath under precise temperature control, following the desired time and temperature parameters. This technique preserves moisture, flavor, and nutritional value, and prevents the formation of oxidation and undesirable flavors. Seafood is a valuable food source in terms of nutritional value due to its high biological value protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and mineral content. It is noteworthy to cook such important seafood using the appropriate method and benefit from these features to the maximum extent. This chapter provides information about sous vide cooking technology and its seafood applications.
Cereals play a crucial role in global food security and economic development, serving as primary sources of energy, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds. In addition to their macronutrient content, cereals are rich in phenolic compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic acids, which contribute to their nutritional and functional properties. However, the composition of these bioactive compounds is influenced by genetic factors, environmental conditions, and processing methods. Metabolomics, an advanced analytical approach, has emerged as a powerful tool for exploring the metabolic variability of cereals. Techniques such as Gas Chromatography-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) and Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS/MS) enable the identification and quantification of diverse phenolic compounds, providing insights into their complexity and dynamics. Moreover, metabolomics has facilitated the identification of phenolic biomarkers in humans, linking dietary phenolics to potential health benefits, including reduced risks of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, and cancer. The present chapter discuss the role of metabolomics in understanding phenolic compound variability in cereals, highlighting changes in metabolic profiles during crop development and processing. Additionally, it explores the implications of cereal-derived phenolics in promoting human health, emphasizing their significance in the development of functional foods. The advancements in metabolomics continue to drive innovation in cereal-based products, offering new opportunities for enhancing their nutritional and health-promoting properties.
Shrimp is rich in high-quality protein, abundant omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), essential vitamins and minerals, which make it a significant aquatic product worldwide. However, due to high water activity and abundant nutrients, shrimp is susceptible to quality deterioration through microbial growth, enzymatic melanosis, and oxidative spoilage. This chapter systematically summarizes the nutritional profiles of shrimp and the available strategies employed to preserve its quality and extend shelf life. Though traditional low-temperature techniques including freezing, super-chilling, refrigeration remain the dominant approaches for shrimp preservation, they are often supplemented or replaced by newly developed technologies, such as advanced packaging techniques (Modified Atmosphere Packaging, active and intelligent packaging systems), non-thermal processing (high-pressure processing, cold plasma, irradiation), and the employment of natural preservatives (essential oils, plant extracts, and edible coatings). Furthermore, the chapter also reviews the recent innovations in shrimp processing and the valorization of by-products (e.g., heads, shells) into value-added products, such as chitin, chitosan, and astaxanthin, enhancing economic value and sustainability of shrimp. Finally, it addresses the pressing challenges in shrimp industry, including shrimp disease, ecological pressures, and supply chain vulnerabilities, and provides some new insights in improving the shrimp industry's future sustainability, efficiency, and resilience.
Maximizing the use of seafood resources has become a strategic priority in addressing global food security, sustainability, and resource efficiency. Recent advances in biotechnology and processing have transformed the potential of underutilized seafood sidestreams, residual raw materials (RRM), bycatch, and discards, into high-value applications. Enzymatic hydrolysis, membrane filtration, and green refining technologies now enable targeted extraction of proteins, marine lipids (EPA/DHA), bioactive peptides, and collagen from materials previously considered waste. Innovations such as micro- and nanoencapsulation improve oxidative stability, facilitate food fortification, and support novel applications in infant nutrition, medical foods, and cosmetics. Tailored enzyme blends and process optimization have shifted the focus from volume-based yield to functionality and health effects. Model food systems are increasingly used in R&D to evaluate ingredient stability, sensory properties, and bioactivity. Despite regulatory, technical, and consumer-related challenges, there is growing momentum toward full biomass utilization within a circular economy framework. This chapter explores the opportunities and barriers in depth, reviewing the nutritional, technological, and market potential of seafood sidestreams, while highlighting key processing methods and applications in both food and non-food sectors. It emphasizes the transition from waste handling to resource optimization as a critical step toward a more resilient, sustainable global food system.
Food allergy currently affects approximately 10 % of the global population, representing a significant health challenge with no known cure. This chapter describes the current and emerging food allergens, mechanisms of cross-reactivity and co-sensitisation, clinical implications and management, as well as future directions and research gaps. While current allergens such as milk, eggs, peanuts or crustaceans are the primary focus of existing regulations, the rise of novel protein sources, including edible insects, plant-based alternatives, algae and fungi, introduces new risks for de novo sensitisation. A critical distinction is made between cross-reactivity, where IgE recognises homologous proteins across different species (such as tropomyosins in crustaceans and insects) and co-sensitisation, which involves independent immune responses to unrelated allergens. Management relies on a multidisciplinary approach involving strict avoidance, patient education, and the use of epinephrine for emergencies. Advancements in food allergy diagnosis and integrated molecular databases are essential for distinguishing true primary allergies from cross-reactions and for assessing the risks of emerging foods. Furthermore, the chapter emphasises evidence-based prevention, noting that the early introduction of allergenic foods in infancy can significantly reduce the risk of developing allergies. Consistent monitoring and clear labelling remain vital for protecting allergic consumers in an evolving food landscape.
B vitamins are essential water-soluble cofactors involved in metabolic regulation and neurological function. In plant-based diets, maintaining adequate B vitamin status is challenging because nutritional value depends not only on vitamin content but also on bioavailability. Although many plant foods contain substantial quantities of B vitamins, their absorption is generally lower than that from animal-derived sources due to differences in chemical form, matrix associations, and conjugation state. Thiamine and niacin often require liberation from bound forms; folates must undergo enzymatic deconjugation; vitamin B6 frequently occurs in glycosylated forms with reduced biological activity; and vitamin B12 is absent from unfortified plant foods. Bioavailability is further modulated by dietary composition, gastrointestinal conditions, and host genetic variability. Assessment approaches, such as in vitro models, cellular transport systems, and in vivo biomarkers, provide complementary but incomplete perspectives on physiological availability. Fermentation has emerged as a promising strategy to enhance B vitamin bioavailability in plant foods through microbial synthesis, matrix modification, and reduction of antinutritional factors. Applications in cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruits demonstrate substantial improvements in vitamin content and accessibility. This chapter emphasizes the disconnect between analytical vitamin content and physiological impact and positions fermentation as a scalable approach to optimize B-vitamin nutrition in plant-based dietary patterns.
Biogenic amines are low-molecular-weight organic compounds with aliphatic, aromatic, or heterocyclic structures that are produced through various metabolic activities of plants, animals, and microorganisms and may also occur naturally in foods. These compounds are mainly formed through the decarboxylation of amino acids, The formation of biogenic amines in foods by bacteria primarily depends on the availability of free amino acids, the presence of microorganisms possessing decarboxylase activity, and environmental conditions that support microbial growth. Since many protein-rich foods are susceptible to biochemical and microbial reactions, biogenic amines may develop in a wide variety of food products. Consequently, the consumption of foods containing elevated levels of biogenic amines may lead to toxic effects in humans and therefore represents a potential risk to public health. In aquatic products, the formation of biogenic amines is closely related to the high protein and free amino acid content of fish and other seafood. Following the death of the fish, bacteria naturally present in the tissues or introduced from the environment begin to proliferate. These microorganisms convert amino acids into biogenic amines through decarboxylase enzymes. Factors such as improper storage temperatures, disruption of the cold chain, prolonged storage periods, and inadequate hygienic conditions accelerate microbial growth and consequently increase the formation of biogenic amines. This chapter provides an overview of the mechanisms involved in biogenic amines formation and the potential risks they pose, while also addressing the factors influencing their formation in aquatic products, as well as prevention strategies and analytical methods used for their determination.
Intermediate wheatgrass (IWG, Thinopyrum intermedium) is a perennial grain that offers a novel solution for advancing sustainable agriculture and food production. Unlike annual cereals, IWG is a deep-rooted, long-lived species that provides significant environmental benefits including enhanced soil health, reduced erosion, improved carbon sequestration, and lower input requirements. This chapter explores the potential of IWG as a sustainable and nutritionally valuable ingredient in cereal-based foods. It provides a comprehensive review of IWG's physical, compositional, functional, and nutritional properties, emphasizing key advantages such as higher dietary fiber, protein, and phenolic contents compared to traditional cereals. Special attention is given to starch and protein characteristics, dietary fiber profiles, lipid composition, and micronutrient concentrations, including vitamins and minerals. The effects of various processing technologies-such as extrusion, steam explosion, and germination-on the techno-functional properties of IWG are discussed, highlighting opportunities to enhance its end-use performance. Its application in bakery products is critically evaluated, with a focus on dough rheology, gluten functionality, and breadmaking quality. Despite challenges associated with its weaker gluten network, IWG demonstrates strong potential for use in products such as flatbreads, cookies, pasta, and as a partial substitute for common wheat in high volume breads. By combining ecological resilience with health-promoting nutritional attributes, IWG stands out as a promising ingredient for next-generation cereal products aligned with global sustainability, nutrition, and regenerative agriculture goals.
Golden pompano (Trachinotus ovatus) is a warm-water marine fish species of significant economic and nutritional importance, widely cultivated in tropical and temperate regions, particularly in China. This comprehensive review nutritional composition, flavor profiles, and functional properties of golden pompano. Golden pompano muscle contains approximately 70 % moisture, 21 % crude protein, and 7.75 % crude fat. The protein is rich in essential amino acids, indicating superior protein quality. The lipid profile is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, including notable levels of EPA and DHA (combined 5.81 %). Flavor analysis reveals that both volatile and non-volatile compounds contribute to its sensory appeal. Key volatile aldehydes (e.g., hexanal, nonanal) and alcohols (e.g., 1-octen-3-ol) impart fresh, fatty, and fruity notes. Non-volatile taste compounds include free amino acids (e.g., glycine, alanine, glutamic acid) and nucleotides, with IMP being the dominant flavor nucleotide. The equivalent umami concentration (EUC) of fresh golden pompano is 7.92 g MSG/100 g, indicating a strong umami intensity. Processing methods such as drying, fermentation, and curing alter the flavor profile, enhancing certain desirable notes while introducing new aromatic compounds. Golden pompano by-products (skin, bones, viscera) are valuable sources of collagen, bioactive peptides, fish oil, polysaccharides, and organic calcium. These components exhibit antioxidant, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, and antibacterial activities, with applications in functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. In conclusion, golden pompano is a nutritionally rich and flavorful fish with considerable commercial and functional potential.