搜索结果：Advances in colloid and interface science

Gene therapy represents a promising strategy for treating a range of diseases. Non-viral gene delivery systems, including lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), polymer micelles, and liposomes, enable the tissue-specific delivery of genetic sequences and promote the expression of functional proteins in target cells. Compared with traditional carriers, LNPs possess distinct, mechanistically supported advantages: high biosafety with less than 5% cytotoxicity in most primary cells and minimal systemic inflammation in preclinical models, good reproducibility with a coefficient of variation less than 10% for particle size and zeta potential, and efficient delivery of nucleic acids such as DNA, mRNA, and siRNA with transfection efficiencies comparable to those of viral vectors. This review summarizes recent advances in LNP-based delivery platforms, with a focus on their structure-activity relationships and the underlying mechanisms of nucleic acid delivery. It further discusses key challenges in clinical translation, including limited targeting specificity, concerns regarding long-term biocompatibility, difficulties in manufacturing scale-up, and regulatory hurdles. Additionally, the article highlights applications in oncology, for instance the delivery of tumor-suppressor genes, mRNA vaccines, and siRNA-mediated oncogene silencing, as well as applications in other therapeutic areas. Notably, we examine pioneering strategies designed to overcome these limitations, such as selective organ targeting (SORT) nanoparticles and biodegradable ionizable lipids including C12-200, which enhance tissue-specific delivery while reducing inflammatory responses. By integrating insights from lipid chemistry, formulation science, and translational data, this review provides a forward-looking perspective on the role of LNPs in cancer immunotherapy and regenerative medicine, while helping establish a framework for the design and optimization of next-generation nucleic acid delivery systems.

Pickering emulsion gels have garnered significant attention due to their advantageous properties, including good stability, surfactant-free nature, and gel-like characteristics. Most prior research has focused on high internal phase Pickering emulsions. In recent years, however, medium/low internal phase (internal phase volume fraction <74%) Pickering emulsion gel (M/LIPPEG) has emerged as a new focus, primarily driven by the need to reduce the use of fats and irritating internal-phase solvents in food and pharmaceutical applications. This review emphasizes the interfacial behavior and gelation mechanisms of M/LIPPEGs. It compares their correlation and difference with the conventional emulsion gels and high internal Pickering emulsion gels, revealing that their stability stems from three interconnected and coexisting factors in real systems: the formation of free particle networks in the continuous phase, droplet aggregation, and jamming effects. The size and spatial presence of free particles were incorporated into the discussion on the jamming effect in emulsion gels and quantitatively analyzed, thereby clarifying the synergistic relationships among the three stabilization mechanisms. Subsequently, this review summarizes the advantages and limitations of M/LIPPEGs stabilized by various biopolymers, and suggests that hybrid particles represent a promising future research direction. Furthermore, strategies for the moderate addition of additional gelators to develop various types of M/LIPPEGs, such as filled Pickering emulsion gels, multiple Pickering emulsion gels, and Pickering bigels, are summarized. Finally, the current state of research and challenges of M/LIPPEGs are discussed across diverse applications, including fat substitutes, delivery systems, dysphagia diets, 3D/4D printing inks, and wound dressings. Currently, the research and development of M/LIPPEGs are still in the initial stage, and there are few examples of semi-solid and liquid emulsion gels with long-term stability. This paper will provide valuable information for the development of M/LIPPEGs and their applications in the food and pharmaceutical sectors.

Transfusions of red blood cells (RBCs) are a cornerstone of modern medicine but face major challenges, including limited supply, short shelf life, and risk of infection. Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) have long been investigated as blood substitutes, yet instability, oxidative toxicity, and rapid clearance of free hemoglobin (Hb) have hindered clinical translation. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have recently emerged as a promising platform to overcome these limitations. Their crystalline, porous structures can encapsulate Hb, protect it from denaturation and oxidation, and modulate oxygen (O2) binding and release. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of MOF-based HBOCs, covering both large-pore systems that allow post-synthetic Hb loading and zeolitic imidazolate frameworks enabling in situ biomimetic mineralization. We highlight how encapsulation conditions and additives influence Hb loading, stability, and O2 transport, and we examine the role of surface modifications, including poly(ethylene glycol), polydopamine, metal-phenolic networks, and RBC membrane coatings, in enhancing antioxidant protection, circulation time, and immune evasion. In vitro data consistently demonstrate high biocompatibility, reduced protein fouling, and minimal hemolysis, while in vivo studies reveal extended circulation half-lives, favorable biodistribution, and therapeutic efficacy in hemorrhagic shock models. We also compare MOF-based HBOCs with alternative nanocarriers and polymer-stabilized systems, emphasizing their unique advantages and remaining challenges. Finally, we discuss key hurdles for translation, including long-term stability, safety, scalable manufacturing, and regulatory considerations. Together, recent advances position MOF-Hb composites as highly promising candidates for next-generation O2 therapeutics bridging the gap between transfusion medicine and nanomedicine.

Proteins are increasingly recognized as promising alternatives to conventional synthetic polymers in food packaging owing to their sustainability, biodegradability, renewability, and favorable techno-functional properties. However, biodegradable materials made solely from proteins often suffer from low mechanical strength and barrier efficiency, high water sensitivity, and limited biofunctional properties, restricting their practical applications in food packaging. Protein-polyphenol interactions have emerged as an innovative strategy to enhance the performance of protein-based biodegradable materials. Polyphenols, naturally occurring plant compounds known for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and crosslinking abilities, can interact with proteins through non-covalent complexation and covalent conjugation. These interactions improve the structural, physicochemical, and functional characteristics of protein-based materials, rendering them suitable for multifunctional food packaging systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the fundamental principles governing protein-polyphenol complexation and conjugation, with an emphasis on the underlying chemical mechanisms, structural modifications, and analytical characterization methods. It discusses how these interactions enhance techno-functional properties and film performance, including improved mechanical strength, thermal stability, barrier properties, and antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Furthermore, the review highlights the potential of protein-polyphenol conjugates and complexes in developing multifunctional packaging materials designed to extend shelf life and preserve food quality, while addressing current challenges and future research directions. The combination of protein renewability with polyphenol bioactivity offers a sustainable and eco-friendly pathway toward next-generation packaging materials that reduce plastic waste and enhance food shelf-life and safety.

Gelatin, a biopolymer from animal by-products, stands out for its abundance, film-forming ability, and beneficial functional and biological properties, making it a promising option for sustainable food packaging. This review begins with an overview of gelatin, including its sources, extraction methods, and key characteristics, followed by a discussion of its current applications in the food industry. It then provides a comprehensive analysis of electrospun gelatin nanofibers, highlighting their film performance and functional properties such as structural, mechanical, barrier, and thermal attributes, as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. In addition, the potential of these nanofibers in active, smart, and intelligent packaging systems that are designed to extend shelf life and monitor or preserve food freshness is examined. Electrospun gelatin nanofibers represent a promising and sustainable platform for next-generation food packaging materials. Progress in processing methods, including optimization of electrospinning conditions, blending with compatible natural or synthetic polymers, and incorporating functional additives such as crosslinking agents and bioactive compounds, has significantly improved their mechanical strength, barrier efficiency, and functional performance. Electrospun gelatin nanofiber-based packaging materials combine environmental sustainability with useful functional properties, providing a practical approach to reducing plastic waste and improving food preservation.

Driven by growing health awareness and advances in precision nutrition, the targeted incorporation of bioactive compounds such as vitamins and probiotics into food systems is gaining increasing attention. However, their inherent instability during processing and low bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract remain key challenges limiting their efficacy. Intelligent Responsive Delivery Systems (IRDS) offer promising strategies to overcome these obstacles by utilizing stimulus-triggered release mechanisms. This review focuses on food-grade colloidal carriers based on polysaccharides, summarizing natural polysaccharides sources, structural formulae, and molecular weights. IRDS are categorized, and response mechanisms and design strategies are highlighted. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of each delivery system are discussed. Finally, the challenges of current research on responsive delivery systems and their future research directions are presented. Currently, IRDS are maturing in the biomedical field, however, there is a lack of comprehensive explanation of their natural responsive materials and responsive delivery mechanisms in the food field. While enhancing compound stability and bioavailability, challenges remain in scalability, response precision, and safety validation. Future research should focus on the validation of multi-stimulus synergistic response systems and mechanisms to realize the innovation of colloidal delivery of functional foods and personalized nutrition.

The recovery of rubidium (Rb) from unconventional sources, including seawater and brine, is becoming attractive due to its growing global demand. Although seawater brine presents a sustainable alternative to traditional mining, the ultra-trace concentrations of Rb and competing alkali metals make the selective extraction particularly challenging. This review provides a concise overview of recent advances in sorbent design, including inorganic material-based sorbents, nanostructured sorbents such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), ion-imprinted polymers, and supramolecular sorbents, as well as integrated membrane-based recovery systems. First, existing brine mining technologies are summarized to provide a critical overview. Second, inorganic material-based pristine and hybrid sorbents are evaluated, which indicate that these sorbents offer improved selectivity due to tailored surface functionalities and structural adaptability. Notably, hybrid sorbents, especially those integrating inorganic sorbents with polymeric or magnetic supports, demonstrate improved stability, enhanced regeneration, and operational robustness. Third, the performance of emerging nanostructured sorbents and membrane-based integrated modules is critically analysed with regard to sorption capacity, selectivity, and scalability. Fourth, challenges and future research opportunities are outlined to bridge the gap between lab-scale performance and industrial implementation. The findings of this review provide a foundational framework for future innovation in sustainable Rb recovery and outline the broader potential of multifunctional sorbents in extracting Rb from complex matrices such as seawater brines.

The global energy landscape is undergoing a strategic shift toward unconventional oil and gas resources, which are predominantly hosted in complex multiscale pore systems dominated by micro- and nanoscale pores. A major bottleneck to their cost-effective development lies in the limited understanding of hydrocarbon transport mechanisms at these scales. This review begins with a systematic assessment of pore network structures in unconventional reservoirs, categorizing current pore characterization techniques according to their strengths in qualitative identification and quantitative analysis. Accurate description of pore morphology and connectivity is emphasized as the foundation for both physical experimentation and numerical simulation of microscale and nanoscale flow. The review then highlights the unique transport phenomena and phase behaviors that emerge under nanoscale confinement from a molecular mechanistic perspective. In such restricted environments, oil-gas two-phase systems display distinct physical characteristics and phase transitions-such as gas rarefaction, oil-phase interfacial effects, and vapor-liquid equilibria-that deviate substantially from macroscopic behavior. Finally, the review surveys the state of physical and computational modeling approaches for micro- and nanoscale flow, analyzing their respective advantages and limitations to inform the development of systematic transport models. We conclude that future models for unconventional resource development must incorporate multiphysics and multiscale effects, including complex stress fields, pore structure heterogeneity, and multiphase interactions. Such integrative frameworks will underpin the construction of predictive mathematical models for oil, gas, and water transport in confined porous media, thereby advancing the efficient exploitation of unconventional reservoirs.

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) has emerged as a cornerstone in the design of nano-luminescent materials owing to its exceptional chemical stability, structural tunability, and biocompatibility. This review systematically highlights the pivotal functions of SiO2 in three domains: stability enhancement, structural regulation, and function expansion. As a physical barrier, silica effectively prevents water and oxygen-induced degradation, thereby markedly improving the chemical and photostability of sensitive emitters. As a structural matrix, its mesoporous frameworks and surface chemistry enable precise loading, spatial confinement, and integration of luminescent units, while the control of pore size, defect states, and interfacial interactions allows tailoring of optical properties and energy-transfer pathways. Furthermore, advanced architectures such as core-shell, Janus, and chiral structures extend the functional boundaries of SiO2-based systems, unlocking opportunities in bioimaging, anti-counterfeiting, and smart sensing. Built on these functions, the review introduces six representative nano-luminescent materials based on silica hybrid systems (including hybrids with carbon quantum dots, inorganic quantum dots, upconversion nanoparticles, perovskites, metal nanoparticles, and organic fluorophores), and demonstrates how silica imparts stability, structural regulation, and multifunctionality for nano-luminescent materials. Finally, current challenges, such as scalable synthesis, stability under extreme environments, and potential biosafety risks, are critically discussed. We believe that a possible future direction is an integrated development strategy of "intelligent design-precise regulation-green optimization", offering theoretical and practical guidance for advancing nano-luminescent materials toward real-world applications in biomedicine, optoelectronics, and environmental monitoring.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as revolutionary adsorbents for nuclear waste remediation compared to conventional adsorbents due to their exceptional properties including high surface areas, tunable pore structures, and customizable functionalities. This comprehensive review highlights cutting-edge innovations in MOF synthesis, functionalization, and their diverse applications in removing radioactive pollutants in the last years. We systematically explore sophisticated functionalization strategies encompassing surface modification, metal node engineering, post-synthetic modification, and linker design that significantly enhance adsorption performance and selectivity. Attention has been given to actinide MOFs, which demonstrate unique structural properties and superior stability under harsh radioactive conditions. The applications section comprehensively covers gaseous radionuclides (Rn, I2, Xe, Kr), anionic species (TcO4-, ReO4-, TeO32-), and cationic pollutants (U(VI), Th4+, Sr2+, Cs+, Eu3+), revealing diverse adsorption mechanisms, which are thoroughly discussed. Furthermore, the adsorption kinetics, MOFs regeneration and reusability, and economic feasibility and lifecycle analyses are considered. Despite remarkable progress, specific gaps persist, including the lack of systematic, long-term radiation and hydrolytic stability data for most MOFs under realistic nuclear waste conditions and the still unclear synergistic mechanisms operating in multi-functionalized, composite, or hybrid MOF systems. Future research should focus on constructing intrinsically radiation-resistant frameworks, developing scalable and sustainable synthesis and shaping routes, and elucidating structure performance relationships through in-situ and multi-scale mechanistic studies that correlate framework features with radionuclide capture and regeneration behavior under prolonged irradiation.

Microemulsions and nanoemulsions are two prominent types of colloidal dispersions utilized in the pharmaceutical sector for the delivery of hydrophobic drugs. These systems typically contain small droplets (d&#xa0;<&#xa0;200&#xa0;nm), which enhances their stability and improves the bioavailability of the encapsulated molecules. Besides pharmaceuticals, they find diverse applications across various fields, including nutraceuticals, food, cosmetics, biomedicine, enhanced oil recovery, and material synthesis, among numerous others. Despite their widespread use, confusion persists regarding the distinctions between these two systems, often leading to the interchangeable use of the terms 'microemulsion' and 'nanoemulsion'. This misnomer is increasingly common in the scientific literature, resulting in confusion and inaccurate reporting. Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable, while nanoemulsions are only kinetically stable. Consequently, microemulsions form spontaneously upon mixing the components and should remain stable indefinitely. In contrast, nanoemulsions require the input of external energy to form them and tend to break down over time. This review aims to compare microemulsions and nanoemulsions across various aspects to clarify misconceptions and the terminology associated with these colloidal dispersions. It includes an elucidation of their types, droplet characteristics, stability, formulation aspects (composition and fabrication methods), pharmaceutical applications, regulatory overview, and recent advancements. Practical approaches for distinguishing microemulsions and nanoemulsions, including evaluating their long-term stability, assessing the reversibility of structural changes upon temperature variation, and examining the order of component mixing, are presented. This review provides valuable insights into the similarities and differences between microemulsions and nanoemulsions, which have direct implications for effective drug delivery.

Bioactive glasses (BGs) have emerged as multifunctional biomaterials with distinctive therapeutic and targeting capabilities, positioning them as promising candidates for regenerative medicine and disease treatment. This review traces the evolution of BGs from their conventional use in tissue regeneration to their integration into advanced therapeutic platforms. We first examine the intrinsic physicochemical properties that underpin their bioactivity and targeting functions. Recent technological innovations, including nanofibrous scaffolds, injectable formulations, nanostructured coatings, drug delivery systems, and 3D-printed bioinks, have significantly expanded the biomedical applications of BGs. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate their capacity to promote tissue regeneration under various pathological conditions, stimulate osteogenesis while inhibiting osteoclastogenesis, and modulate inflammatory, infectious, and ischemic microenvironments. Furthermore, BG-based systems enable synergistic therapeutic outcomes through controlled drug release. Emerging research highlights their potential in cancer therapy via ion-mediated cytotoxicity, stimuli-responsive modalities such as photothermal/photodynamic therapy and hyperthermia, and combinatorial treatment approaches. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the therapeutic versatility and targeted functionalities of BGs, underscoring their potential in next-generation biomedical applications.

Superhydrophobic surfaces have emerged as a promising and energy-efficient solution for ice accretion. However, their practical implementation is hindered by the vulnerability of the Cassie-Baxter state under realistic icing conditions, where multi-scale water environments exposure leads to rapid wetting transition and ice adhesion. This review provides a novel and comprehensive perspective on the design of robust superhydrophobic anti-icing surfaces (SAISs), highlighting the key role of anti-wetting/dewetting performances at both macroscopic and microscopic scales. We begin by revisiting fundamental wetting theories from static to dynamic wetting models. Special emphasis is placed on the roles of micro/nano-textures in stabilizing the non-wetting state and facilitating spontaneous dewetting during condensation, icing, and melting. Furthermore, we systematically categorize recent advances in current state-of-the-art SAISs, including all-nanostructured, periodic hierarchical, and random hierarchical architectures, and evaluate their anti-wetting robustness, condensation tolerance, and deicing performance. The integration of superhydrophobicity with photothermal or electrothermal functionalities is also discussed as an emerging strategy to achieve low-energy and high-durability anti-icing systems. Finally, we outline key challenges and future directions for the rational design of SAISs. This review shifts the focus from the often-discussed mechanical and chemical durability to the more pressing issue of wetting stability under water environment exposure, aiming to inspire further innovation in materials engineering for aerospace, energy, and transportation applications in cold climates.

Microplastics (MPs, <5&#xa0;mm) and nanoplastics (NPs, <1&#xa0;&#x3bc;m) are pervasive pollutants increasingly recognized as emerging threats to human health. While their systemic impacts on the gastrointestinal, respiratory, reproductive, and immune systems are well documented, their relevance to oral health has received limited attention. The oral cavity represents both a primary site of exposure, via ingestion, inhalation, and contact with dental and personal care products, and a sensitive biological interface where local toxicity may arise. This review synthesizes evidence on oral sources of MPs/NPs, including toothbrushes, toothpastes, orthodontic appliances, restorative composites, prostheses, implants, and impression materials. We highlight potential links to oral diseases such as gingivitis, periodontitis, peri-implantitis, denture stomatitis, oral cancer, and xerostomia. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that MPs/NPs trigger oxidative stress, inflammatory signaling, immune dysregulation, microbiome disturbances, and endocrine disruption, with implications for both local pathology and systemic dissemination. Once crossing oral and gastrointestinal barriers, these particles can accumulate in distant organs, exacerbating chronic inflammatory and metabolic disorders. We conclude by outlining key research gaps, emphasizing the need for advanced detection methods, sustainable dental materials, and translational studies to clarify clinical relevance. Collectively, this review underscores the oral cavity as a critical but underexplored interface for plastic particle exposure.

Nature is full of fascinating examples where physical strategies help achieve adhesion, self-healing, climbing, and attachment. For instance, reptiles climb walls without falling to the ground, and DNA double helix reannealing, as well as protein folding and refolding, occur due to noncovalent interactions. Similarly, in the self-healing of human skin and the formation of water clusters, noncovalent interactions play a critical role. Hydrogels having noncovalent supramolecular interactions are renowned for their intricate structure and excellent mechano-responsive properties, establishing them as key materials for human-machine interactions, drug delivery, biosensors, strain sensors, energy storage, and energy harvesting systems. This review explains the mechanism of supramolecular interactions in conductive hydrogels (CHs), details comparative studies between conductive supramolecular polymer hydrogels (CSuPHs) and traditional hydrogels, and recent strategies for improving the mechanical strength of CSuPHs. Additionally, it discusses different types of flexible sensors based on supramolecular interactions and explains the emerging applications of CSuPHs in wearable electronics (human motion monitoring, strain and pressure sensing, wearable smart gloves, and sweat analysis), energy storage and harvesting systems (triboelectric nano-generator (TENG), piezo-electric nanogenerators (PENG)). It highlights the challenges exist and future prospects of CSuPHs.

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), widely used as flame retardants, plasticizers, pesticides, and nerve-agent simulants, are emerging contaminants of global concern due to their persistence, bioaccumulation, and neurotoxicity. The development of artificial enzymes capable of catalyzing their hydrolysis under mild and scalable conditions is therefore of great importance. Phosphatase-like nanozymes, which integrate the robustness of inorganic catalysts with the substrate specificity of enzymes, have recently emerged as a promising platform for OPEs detoxification and detection. This review systematically elucidates the catalytic mechanisms that govern phosphate-ester hydrolysis, establishing four mechanistic pillars that guide rational nanozyme design: (i) Lewis-acid polarization at metal centers to activate the PO bond; (ii) general acid-base proton-relay networks that couple water activation with leaving-group stabilization; (iii) pre-activated nucleophile supply via M-OH or &#x3bc;-OH ensembles; and (iv) microenvironmental and interfacial regulation that orients substrates and stabilizes transition states through hydrogen-bond networks. We further summarize structure-activity relationships derived from particle-size tuning, morphology control, heteroatom doping, surface functionalization, and hybrid construction, which collectively optimize active-site accessibility and Lewis acidity. These principles are then extended to environmental applications, including colorimetric, fluorescent, electrochemical, and wearable sensing platforms, as well as scalable catalytic systems for organophosphate degradation in water and soil. Finally, current challenges, such as mechanistic ambiguity, limited selectivity, and lack of standardized benchmarking are discussed alongside future opportunities in operando spectroscopy, machine-learning-assisted discovery, and biohybrid integration. By coupling mechanistic understanding with materials engineering, phosphatase-like nanozymes can evolve from laboratory curiosities into versatile tools for real-world monitoring and remediation of organophosphate pollutants.

Shale reservoirs, characterized by their complex nanoporous structures and heterogeneous mineral compositions, present ubiquitous interfacial phenomena that govern fluid behavior at the nanoscale. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of three critical interfacial processes (adsorption, wettability, and fluid flow) occurring in shale formations, emphasizing microscopic mechanisms gained from molecular simulations. The interplay between geofluids (e.g., CH4, CO2, C8H18, H2O) and diverse shale constituents (including silica, carbonates, clay minerals, and kerogen) is examined. Key findings reveal that adsorption mechanisms are strongly influenced by pore size, surface chemistry, fluid composition, and confinement effects, with competitive adsorption favoring heavier hydrocarbons and CO2 over methane. Wettability, governed by fluid-solid interactions, varies significantly across mineral surfaces and is modulated by factors such as surface functionalization, ion presence, and pressure conditions. Nanoconfined fluid flow exhibits slip behaviors, viscosity variations, and complex multiphase dynamics that depend on interfacial properties and pore geometry. This work provides fundamental mechanistic insights into the nanoscale interfacial phenomena governing fluid behaviors in shale reservoirs. These insights deepen the understanding of complex fluid occurrence and dynamics in heterogeneous porous media and offer theoretical guidance for the optimized design of energy extraction and carbon management strategies in shale systems.

Protein hydrogels (PHGs) have emerged as promising soft materials in food systems due to their tunable structures, high water-holding capacity, and biocompatibility. However, current studies often address molecular interactions, gelation strategies, and functional properties separately, limiting the development of unified design principles. This review provides a critical analysis of PHGs from an interaction-driven perspective. The fundamental crosslinking mechanisms are first summarized, including physical interactions, chemical crosslinking, and metal-ligand coordination. Engineering strategies that regulate gelation are then discussed to clarify how external stimuli control network formation. The relationships between hydrogel structure and functional properties are further analyzed, with emphasis on mechanical behavior, water retention, microstructure, and environmental responsiveness. Food applications, including bioactive delivery, texture modification, fat substitution, 3D food printing, and active packaging, are critically evaluated from a structure-function perspective. Overall, the integration of interaction-driven design with engineering strategies provides a rational framework for tailoring PHGs toward practical food applications.

The wetting of a powder or porous material by a liquid is a crucial first step in processes such as dispersion, dissolution, granulation and reconstitution, which are important in fields such as mineral processing, pharmacy and food science. It is also essential for hydrating soil in agriculture. It is important for efficient oil recovery and, in the future, it may help to store CO2 underground. The article provides a comprehensive review of the wetting of powders and granular materials, emphasizing the complexity introduced by surface heterogeneity, particle size distribution, and structural inhomogeneity. It begins by describing wetting phenomena on ideal, planar or regular surfaces. Fundamental concepts such as the Young equation and contact angle hysteresis, as well as the influence of surface roughness, heterogeneity, and dynamic effects, adaptation, and slide electrification. The review then analyzes how these theoretical frameworks extend to realistic powders, where a single contact angle is insufficient to characterize wetting behavior but whole distributions of contact angles are obtained. Several experimental methods for characterizing the wettability and surface energy of powders are discussed, including capillary rise, sessile drop and drop penetration test, X-ray tomography, inverse gas chromatography, secondary-ion mass spectrometry, sink and drop impact tests. The article highlights the limitations and suitability of each method in relation to specific applications and recommends careful selection based on application needs and powder properties.