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Several lunar missions are planned ahead and there is an increasing demand for efficient photovoltaic power generation in the moon. The knowledge of solar cell operation in the lunar surface obtained during early seventies need to be updated considering current views on solar variability and emerging space solar cell technologies. In this paper some aspects of the solar cell performance expected under variable lunar radiation environment during future space missions to moon are addressed. We have calculated relative power expected from different types of solar cells under extreme solar proton irradiation conditions and high lunar daytime temperature. It is also estimated that 2-3 % of annual solar cell degradation is most probable during the future lunar missions. We have also discussed photovoltaic power generation in long term lunar bases emphasizing technological needs such as sunlight concentration, solar cell cooling and magnetic shielding of radiation for improving the efficiency of solar cells in the lunar environment.

Both axial and radial junction nanowire solar cells have their challenges and advantages. However, so far, there is no review that explicitly provides a detailed comparative analysis of both axial and radial junction solar cells. This article reviews some of the recent results on axial and radial junction nanowire solar cells with an attempt to perform a comparative study between the optical and device behavior of these cells. In particular, we start by reviewing different results on how the absorption can be tuned in axial and radial junction solar cells. We also discuss results on some of the critical device concepts that are required to achieve high efficiency in axial and radial junction solar cells. We include a section on new device concepts that can be realized in nanowire structures. Finally, we conclude this review by discussing a few of the standing challenges of nanowire solar cells.

Perovskite (CH3NH3PbI3) solar cells have made significant advances recently. In this paper, we propose a bilayer heterojunction solar cell comprised of a perovskite layer combining with a IV-VI group semiconductor layer, which can give a conversion efficiency even higher than the conventional perovskite solar cell. Such a scheme uses a property that the semiconductor layer with a direct band gap can be better in absorption of long wavelength light and is complementary to the perovskite layer. We studied the semiconducting layers such as GeSe, SnSe, GeS, and SnS, respectively, and found that GeSe is the best, where the optical absorption efficiency in the perovskite/GeSe solar cell is dramatically increased. It turns out that the short circuit current density is enhanced 100% and the power conversion efficiency is promoted 42.7% (to a high value of 23.77%) larger than that in a solar cell with only single perovskite layer. The power conversion efficiency can be further promoted so long as the fill factor and open-circuit voltage are improved. This strategy opens a new way on developing the solar cells with high performance and practical applications.

Perhaps the largest challenge for our global society is to find ways to replace the slowly but inevitably vanishing fossil fuel supplies by renewable resources and, at the same time, avoid negative effects from the current energy system on climate, environment, and health. The quality of human life to a large degree depends upon the availability of clean energy sources. The worldwide power consumption is expected to double in the next 3 decades because of the increase in world population and the rising demand of energy in the developing countries. This implies enhanced depletion of fossil fuel reserves, leading to further aggravation of the environmental pollution. As a consequence of dwindling resources, a huge power supply gap of 14 terawatts is expected to open up by year 2050 equaling today's entire consumption, thus threatening to create a planetary emergency of gigantic dimensions. Solar energy is expected to play a crucial role as a future energy source. The sun provides about 120,000 terawatts to the earth's surface, which amounts to 6000 times the present rate of the world's energy consumption. However, capturing solar energy and converting it to electricity or chemical fuels, such as hydrogen, at low cost and using abundantly available raw materials remains a huge challenge. Chemistry is expected to make pivotal contributions to identify environmentally friendly solutions to this energy problem. One area of great promise is that of solar converters generally referred to as "organic photovoltaic cells" (OPV) that employ organic constituents for light harvesting or charge carrier transport. While this field is still in its infancy, it is receiving enormous research attention, with the number of publications growing exponentially over the past decade. The advantage of this new generation of solar cells is that they can be produced at low cost, i.e., potentially less than 1 U.S. $/peak watt. Some but not all OPV embodiments can avoid the expensive and energy-intensive high vacuum and materials purification steps that are currently employed in the fabrication of all other thin-film solar cells. Organic materials are abundantly available, so that the technology can be scaled up to the terawatt scale without running into feedstock supply problems. This gives organic-based solar cells an advantage over the two major competing thin-film photovoltaic devices, i.e., CdTe and CuIn(As)Se, which use highly toxic materials of low natural abundance. However, a drawback of the current embodiment of OPV cells is that their efficiency is significantly lower than that for single and multicrystalline silicon as well as CdTe and CuIn(As)Se cells. Also, polymer-based OPV cells are very sensitive to water and oxygen and, hence, need to be carefully sealed to avoid rapid degradation. The research discussed within the framework of this Account aims at identifying and providing solutions to the efficiency problems that the OPV field is still facing. The discussion focuses on mesoscopic solar cells, in particular, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs), which have been developed in our laboratory and remain the focus of our investigations. The efficiency problem is being tackled using molecular science and nanotechnology. The sensitizer constitutes the heart of the DSC, using sunlight to pump electrons from a lower to a higher energy level, generating in this fashion an electric potential difference, which can exploited to produce electric work. Currently, there is a quest for sensitizers that achieve effective harnessing of the red and near-IR part of sunlight, converting these photons to electricity better than the currently used generation of dyes. Progress in this area has been significant over the past few years, resulting in a boost in the conversion efficiency of the DSC that will be reviewed.

The analytical modelling of bulk and quantum well solar cells is reviewed. The analytical approach allows explicit estimates of dominant generation and recombination mechanisms at work in charge neutral and space charge layers of the cells. Consistency of the analysis of cell characteristics in the light and in the dark leaves a single free parameter, which is the mean Shockley-Read-Hall lifetime. Bulk PIN cells are shown to be inherently dominated by non-radiative recombination as a result of the doping related non-radiative fraction of the Shockley injection currents. Quantum well PIN solar cells on the other hand are shown to operate in the radiative limit as a result of the dominance of radiative recombination in the space charge region. These features are exploited using light trapping techniques leading to photon recycling and reduced radiative recombination. The conclusion is that the mirror backed quantum well solar cell device features open circuit voltages determined mainly by the higher bandgap neutral layers, with an absorption threshold determined by the lower gap quantum well superlattice.

A high theoretical efficiency of 47.2% was achieved by a novel combination of In0.51Ga0.49P, GaAs, In0.24Ga0.76As and In0.19Ga0.81Sb subcell layers in a simulated quadruple junction solar cell under 1 sun concentration. The electronic bandgap of these materials are 1.9 eV, 1.42 eV, 1.08 eV and 0.55 eV respectively. This unique arrangement enables the cell absorb photons from ultraviolet to deep infrared wavelengths of the sunlight. Emitter and base thicknesses of the subcells and doping levels of the materials were optimized to maintain the same current in all the four junctions and to obtain the highest conversion efficiency. The short-circuit current density, open circuit voltage and fill factor of the solar cell are 14.7 mA/cm2, 3.38 V and 0.96 respectively. In our design, we considered 1 sun, AM 1.5 global solar spectrum.

The quantum well solar cell (QWSC) is a p - i - n solar cell with quantum wells in the intrinsic region. Previous work has shown that QWSCs have a greater open circuit voltage (Voc) than would be provided by a cell with the quantum well effective bandgap. This suggests that the fundamental efficiency limits of QWSCs are greater than those of single bandgap solar cells. The following work investigates QWSCs in the GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs materials system. The design and optimisation of a QWSC in this system requires studies of the voltage and current dependencies on the aluminium fraction. QWSCs with different aluminium fractions have been studied and show an increasing Voc with increasing barrier aluminium composition. The QE however decreases with increasing aluminium composition. We develop a model of the QE to test novel QWSC designs with a view to minimising this problem. This work concentrates on two design changes. The first deals with com- positionally graded structures in which the bandgap varies with position. This bandgap variation introduces an quasi electric field which can be used to increase minority carrier collection in the low efficiency p and n layers. This technique also

A dynamic electrical model is introduced to investigate the hysteretic effects in the I-V characteristics of perovskite based solar cells. By making a simple ansatz for the polarization relaxation, our model is able to reproduce qualitatively and quantitatively detailed features of measured I-V characteristics. Pre-poling effects are discussed, pointing out the differences between initially over- and under-polarized samples. In particular, the presence of the current over-shoot observed in the reverse characteristics is correlated with the solar cell pre-conditioning. Furthermore, the dynamic hysteresis is analyzed with respect to changing the bias scan rate, the obtained results being consistent with experimentally reported data: the hysteresis amplitude is maximum at intermediate scan rates, while at very slow and very fast ones it becomes negligible. The effects induced by different relaxation time scales are assessed. The proposed dynamic electrical model offers a comprehensive view of the solar cell operation, being a practical tool for future calibration of tentative microscopic descriptions.

In this study, the non-potential magnetic field parameters of active region NOAA 9077 are investigated; this AR experienced a super-strong X5.7 solar flare. Using advanced extrapolation techniques, the 3D magnetic field structure from vector magnetograms is obtained from the Solar Magnetic Field Telescope (SMFT) at Huairou Solar Observing Station (HSOS). Then various non-potential parameters are calculated, including current density, shear angle, quasi-separatrix layers (QSLs), twist, and field line helicity. By analyzing the spatial and temporal distributions of these parameters, we aim to shed light on the relationship between magnetic field properties and solar flare occurrence. Our findings reveal that high twist and complex magnetic field configurations are prevalent before flares, while these features tend to weaken after the eruption. Additionally, we observe decreases in helicity and free energy after the flare, while the free energy peaks approximately 1.5 days prior to the onset of the flare. Furthermore, we investigate the distribution of quasi-separatrix layers and twist, finding high degrees of complexity before flares. Multiple patterns of high current density regions

With rapid progress in a power conversion efficiency (PCE) to reach 25%, metal halide perovskite-based solar cells became a game-changer in a photovoltaic performance race. Triggered by the development of the solid-state perovskite solar cell in 2012, intense follow-up research works on structure design, materials chemistry, process engineering, and device physics have contributed to the revolutionary evolution of the solid-state perovskite solar cell to be a strong candidate for a next-generation solar energy harvester. The high efficiency in combination with the low cost of materials and processes are the selling points of this cell over commercial silicon or other organic and inorganic solar cells. The characteristic features of perovskite materials may enable further advancement of the PCE beyond those afforded by the silicon solar cells, toward the Shockley-Queisser limit. This review summarizes the fundamentals behind the optoelectronic properties of perovskite materials, as well as the important approaches to fabricating high-efficiency perovskite solar cells. Furthermore, possible next-generation strategies for enhancing the PCE over the Shockley-Queisser limit are discussed.

One of the most commonly observed solar radio sources in the metric and decametric wavelengths is the solar noise storm. These are generally associated with active regions and are believed to be powered by the plasma emission mechanism. Since plasma emission emits primarily at the fundamental and harmonic of the local plasma frequency, it is significantly affected by density inhomogeneities in the solar corona. The source can become significantly scatter-broadened due to the multi-path propagation caused by refraction from the density inhomogeneities. Past observational and theoretical estimates suggest some minimum observable source size in the solar corona. The details of this limit, however, depends on the modeling approach and details of the coronal turbulence model chosen. Hence pushing the minimum observable source size to smaller values can help constrain the plasma environment of the observed sources. In this work, we for the first time, use data from the upgraded Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope in the 250--500 MHz band, to determine multiple instances of very small-scale structures in the noise storms. We also find that these structures are stable over timescales of 15--30

We study the solar-activity and solar-polarity dependence of galactic cosmic-ray intensity (CRI) on the solar and heliospheric parameters playing a significant role in solar modulation. We utilize the data for cosmic-ray intensity as measured by neutron monitors, solar activity as measured by sunspot number (SSN), interplanetary plasma/field parameters, solar-wind velocity [V] and magnetic field [B], as well as the tilt of the heliospheric current sheet [Λ] and analyse these data for Solar Cycles 20 - 24 (1965 - 2011). We divide individual Solar Cycles into four phases, i.e. low, high, increasing, and decreasing solar activity. We perform regression analysis to calculate and compare the CRI-response to changes in different solar/interplanetary parameters during (i) different phases of solar activity and (ii) similar activity phases but different polarity states. We find that the CRI-response is different during negative (A<0) as compared to positive (A>0) polarity states not only with SSN and Λ but also with B and V. The relative CRI-response to changes in various parameters, in negative (A<0) as compared to positive (A>0) state, is solar-activity dependent; it is ~2 to

Perovskite-based solar cells have attracted significant recent interest, with power conversion efficiencies in excess of 15% already superceding a number of established thin-film solar cell technologies. Most work has focused on a methylammonium lead trihalide perovskites, with a bandgaps of ∼1.55 eV and greater. Here, we explore the effect of replacing the methylammonium cation in this perovskite, and show that with the slightly larger formamidinium cation, we can synthesise formamidinium lead trihalide perovskites with a bandgap tunable between 1.48 and 2.23 eV. We take the 1.48 eV-bandgap perovskite as most suited for single junction solar cells, and demonstrate long-range electron and hole diffusion lengths in this material, making it suitable for planar heterojunction solar cells. We fabricate such devices, and due to the reduced bandgap we achieve high short-circuit currents of >23 mA cm−2, resulting in power conversion efficiencies of up to 14.2%, the highest efficiency yet for solution processed planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells. Formamidinium lead triiodide is hence promising as a new candidate for this class of solar cell.

Tandem solar cells, in which two solar cells with different absorption characteristics are linked to use a wider range of the solar spectrum, were fabricated with each layer processed from solution with the use of bulk heterojunction materials comprising semiconducting polymers and fullerene derivatives. A transparent titanium oxide (TiO(x)) layer separates and connects the front cell and the back cell. The TiO(x) layer serves as an electron transport and collecting layer for the first cell and as a stable foundation that enables the fabrication of the second cell to complete the tandem cell architecture. We use an inverted structure with the low band-gap polymer-fullerene composite as the charge-separating layer in the front cell and the high band-gap polymer composite as that in the back cell. Power-conversion efficiencies of more than 6% were achieved at illuminations of 200 milliwatts per square centimeter.

Our study investigates the properties of Alfvén waves in partially ionised solar plasmas in the presence of steady, field-aligned, flows of charged and neutral particles. Our work aims to understand how such flows modify wave propagation and damping in environments where ion-neutral collisions are significant. We employ a two-fluid model that treats ions and neutrals as separate, colliding fluids and incorporates background steady flows for both species. Using a combination of analytical dispersion analysis and numerical solutions, we examine the impact of these flows on the behaviour of Alfvén waves. Our results show that steady flows lead to substantial modifications of wave properties, including Doppler shifts, propagation direction reversal, flow-dependent changes in damping rates, and the appearance of a new mode associated with neutral flow and collisional coupling. We also identify conditions under which flow-driven mode conversion can arise. Our results offer new insights into the interplay between plasma flows and particle collisions in the regions of the solar atmosphere where partial ionisation is relevant.

The Sun drives a supersonic wind which inflates a giant plasma bubble in our very local interstellar neighborhood, the heliosphere. It is bathed in an extremely variable background of energetic ions and electrons which originate from a number of sources. Solar energetic particles (SEPs) are accelerated in the vicinity of the Sun, whereas shocks driven by solar disturbances are observed to accelerate energetic storm particles (ESPs). Moreover, a dilute population with a distinct composition forms the anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) which are of a mixed interstellar-heliospheric origin. Particles are also accelerated at planetary bow shocks. We will present recent observations of energetic particles by Solar Orbiter and Parker Solar Probe, as well as other spacecraft that allow us to study the acceleration and transport of energetic particles at multiple locations in the inner heliosphere.

Recent developments have renewed the demand for solar cells with increased tolerance to radiation damage. To investigate the specific irradiation damage of 1 MeV electron irradiation in GaInAsP lattice matched to InP for varying In and P contents, a simulation based analysis is employed: by fitting the quantum efficiency and open-circuit voltage simultaneously before and after irradiation, the induced changes in lifetime are detected. Furthermore, the reduction of irradiation damage during regeneration under typical satellite operating conditions for GEO missions (60°C and AM0 illumination) is investigated. A clear decrease of the radiation damage is observed after post irradiation regeneration. This regeneration effect is stronger for increasing InP-fraction. It is demonstrated that the irradiation induced defect recombination coefficient for irradiation with 1 MeV electrons after regeneration for 216 hours can be described with a linear function of InP-fraction between 1*10$^{-5}$ cm$^2$/s for GaAs and 7*10$^{-7}$ cm$^2$/s for InP. The results show that GaInAsP is a promising material for radiation hard space solar cells.

The Sun provides a critical benchmark for the general study of stellar structure and evolution. Also, knowledge about the internal properties of the Sun is important for the understanding of solar atmospheric phenomena, including the solar magnetic cycle. Here I provide a brief overview of the theory of stellar structure and evolution, including the physical processes and parameters that are involved. This is followed by a discussion of solar evolution, extending from the birth to the latest stages. As a background for the interpretation of observations related to the solar interior I provide a rather extensive analysis of the sensitivity of solar models to the assumptions underlying their calculation. I then discuss the detailed information about the solar interior that has become available through helioseismic investigations and the detection of solar neutrinos, with further constraints provided by the observed abundances of the lightest elements. Revisions in the determination of the solar surface abundances have led to increased discrepancies, discussed in some detail, between the observational inferences and solar models. I finally briefly address the relation of the Sun to ot

We study solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) during the deep solar minimum, including the declining phase, of solar cycle 23 and compare the results of this unusual period with the results obtained during similar phases of the previous solar cycles 20, 21, and 22. These periods consist of two epochs each of negative and positive polarities of the heliospheric magnetic field from the north polar region of the Sun. In addition to cosmic ray data, we utilize simultaneous solar and interplanetary plasma/field data including the tilt angle of the heliospheric current sheet. We study the relation between simultaneous variations in cosmic ray intensity and solar/interplanetary parameters during the declining and the minimum phases of cycle 23. We compare these relations with those obtained for the same phases in the three previous solar cycles. We observe certain peculiar features in cosmic ray modulation during the minimum of solar cycle 23 including the record high GCR intensity. We find, during this unusual minimum, that the correlation of GCR intensity is poor with sunspot number (R = -0.41), better with interplanetary magnetic field (R = -0.66), still better with solar wi

We present results of a dual eclipse expedition to observe the solar corona from two sites during the annular solar eclipse of 2023 October 14, using a novel coronagraph designed to be accessible for amateurs and students to build and deploy. The coronagraph "CATEcor" builds on the standardized eclipse observing equipment developed for the Citizen CATE 2024 experiment. The observing sites were selected for likelihood of clear observations, for historic relevance (near the Climax site in the Colorado Rocky Mountains), and for centrality to the annular eclipse path (atop Sandia Peak above Albuquerque, New Mexico). The novel portion of CATEcor is an external occulter assembly that slips over the front of a conventional dioptric telescope, forming a "shaded-truss" externally occulted coronagraph. CATEcor is specifically designed to be easily constructed in a garage or "makerspace" environment. We successfully observed some bright features in the solar corona to an altitude of approximately 2.25 R$_\odot$ during the annular phases of the eclipse. Future improvements to the design, in progress now, will reduce both stray light and image artifacts; our objective is to develop a design tha